tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39210229516792673042024-03-20T16:30:48.635+07:00Ilmu EkonomiBratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.comBlogger120125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-79757983338889275192015-07-13T12:04:00.000+07:002016-07-04T21:56:28.839+07:00Masalah Update Google Play Game<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;">Kali ini saya akan berbagi pengalaman tentang cara mengatasi masalah update google play game. </span>"This app requires the latest version of the google play game app". Ketika ingin sinkronisasi permainan dengan google play game, masalah yang ditemui adalah play game tersebut meminta untuk di update. Namun, ketika membuka play store, play game tersebut ternyata sudah update dan ketika dibuka play game tersebut meminta untuk di update lagi. dan begitu seterusnya berulang-ulang.</div>
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Contohnya ketika ingin menganti akun coc</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8uz9KNHnQclVNSXZce6L3ZBBzolMDaGE8ESxVS8eSIbt3ddMg1hXF7_l51B9v_O6f9KMsXqpzGkX9wfPq7tVu_HWDpUmSPZelZEEIDo0hLkgyxj2_FC4tr0Ypp1mfjteW4VJHRX0JefQB/s1600/Screenshot_2015-05-31-10-19-16.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8uz9KNHnQclVNSXZce6L3ZBBzolMDaGE8ESxVS8eSIbt3ddMg1hXF7_l51B9v_O6f9KMsXqpzGkX9wfPq7tVu_HWDpUmSPZelZEEIDo0hLkgyxj2_FC4tr0Ypp1mfjteW4VJHRX0JefQB/s320/Screenshot_2015-05-31-10-19-16.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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Waktu itu saya download bluestack bermain coc untuk akun saya yang lain. Iseng-iseng, saya melakukan backup aplikasi "google play game" di bluestack tersebut dengan menggunakan aplikasi "app backup & restore" kemudian mengirim aplikasi play tersebut ke hp. Eh ternyata setelah di instal, google play game di hp saya sudah tidak minta update lagi.</div>
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Berikut link download google play game buat sobat yang mengalami masalah update google play game : Setelah di download, tinggal di instal saja.</div>
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<a href="http://www.solidfiles.com/d/929e5ac34c/">Download Play Games-31110070-v3.1.11 (2044178-070)</a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiti98py40X8zmBWjPUF8ta9bZbT5KabteD-SIEiDjK_0JC4GmnLkMRo4WLxwOVVPzKXYzNMoem28yd_mK5nWfTB8rv-J2OuKGZ3zmqqk0yxjC0q7Ms5S9j-eGAliUoX3MTD0kCzyP6Y16/s1600/Screenshot_2015-07-13-10-49-40.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiti98py40X8zmBWjPUF8ta9bZbT5KabteD-SIEiDjK_0JC4GmnLkMRo4WLxwOVVPzKXYzNMoem28yd_mK5nWfTB8rv-J2OuKGZ3zmqqk0yxjC0q7Ms5S9j-eGAliUoX3MTD0kCzyP6Y16/s320/Screenshot_2015-07-13-10-49-40.png" width="179" /></a></div>
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Jika sobat bermasalah dengan google play service yang sering force stop, lakukan hal berikut.</div>
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Buka setting > Security > Device administrators > Hilangkan tanda centang </div>
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Jika masih bermasalah. Uninstall update google play service, bisa sobat temui di setting > aplikasi >google play service. Setelah itu update kembali google play service di play store. </div>
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Selesai. Semoga bermanfaat </div>
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Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-43222868800963133842014-02-16T23:05:00.000+07:002014-02-16T23:05:00.536+07:00KEUNGGULAN SISTEM PEREKONOMIAN NEGARA JEPANG<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="I">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Pendahulan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">I</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">stilah
“sistem” berasal dari perkataan “systema” (bahasa Yunani), yang dapat diartikan
sebagai: keseluruhan yang terdiri dari macam-macam bagian. Beberapa definisi
tentang sistem antara lain :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-
Suatu sistem adalah seperangkat komponen, yang saling berhubungan satu
samalain, yang memiliki batas yang menseleksi baik macamnya maupun banyaknya
input yang masuk dan output yang keluar dari sistem tersebut.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem tersusun dari seperangkat
komponen yang bekerja secara bersama-sama untuk mencapai semua tujuan dari
keseluruhan sistem tersebut.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebuah
sistem dapat digambarkan sebagai sebuah kumulan dari elemen-elemenn atau
komponen-komonen dimana beberapa dari komponen tersebut saling berhubungan
secara tetap dalam jangka waktu tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Beberapa
ciri dari sebuah sistem dirumuskan antara lain sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-
Walaupun sistem itu mempunyai batas, akan tetapi sistem itu bersifat terbuka,
dalam arti bertinteraksi juga dengan lingkungannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-
Setiap sistem tidak hanya sekedar kumpulan berbagai bagian, unsur atau
komponen, melainkan merupakan satu kebulatan yang utuh dan padu, bersifat
“wholism”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">-
Setiap sistem melakukan kegiatan atau proses mengubah masukan menjadi keluaran.
(dikutip dai Amirin dalam Suroso, 1994).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
adalah suatu organisasi besar yang menjalin berbagai subyek dan obyek serta
perangkat kelembagaan dalam suatu tatanan tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
ekonomi sebagai solusi dari permasalahan ekonomi yang terjadi dapat dibedakan
menjadi 4 macam, yaitu :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Sistem Ekonomi Tradisional</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.
Sistem Ekonomi Pasar (Liberal/Bebas)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
sistem ekonomi Komando (Terpusat)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Sistem Ekonomi Campuran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Sistem Ekonomi Tradisional</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
ekonomi tradisional merupakan sistem ekonomi yang diterapkan oleh masyarakat
tradisional secara turun temurun dengan hanya mengandalkan alam dan tenaga
kerja.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri
dari sistem ekonomi tradisional adalah :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Teknik produksi dipelajari secara turun temurun dan bersifat sederhana</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.
Hanya sedikit menggunakan modal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
Pertukaran dilakukan dengan sistem barter (barang dengan barang)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Belum mengenal pembagian kerja</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5.
Masih terikat tradisi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6.
Tanah sebagai tumpuan kegiatan produksi dan sumber kemakmuran</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Sistem Ekonomi Pasar
(Liberal/Bebas)</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
ekonomi pasar adalah suatu sistem ekonomi dimana seluruh kegiatan ekonomi mulai
dari produksi, distribusi dan konsumsi diserahkan sepenuhnya kepada mekanisme
pasar.Sistem ini sesuai dengan ajaran dari Adam Smith, dalam bukunya An Inquiry
Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri
dari sistem ekonomi pasar adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Setiap orang bebas memiliki barang, termasuk barang modal</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.
Setiap orang bebas menggunakan barang dan jasa yang dimilikinya</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
Aktivitas ekonomi ditujukan untuk memperoleh laba</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Semua aktivitas ekonomi dilaksanakan oleh masyarakat (Swasta)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">5.
Pemerintah tidak melakukan intervensi dalam pasar</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">6.
Persaingan dilakukan secara bebas</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">7.
Peranan modal sangat vital </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3. Sistem Ekonomi Komando
(Terpusat)</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
ekonomi komando adalah sistem ekonomi dimana peran pemerintah sangat dominan
dan berpengaruh dalam mengendalikan perekonomian. Pada sistem ini pemerintah
menentukan barang dan jasa apa yang akan diproduksi, dengan cara atau metode
bagaimana barang tersebut diproduksi, serta untuk siapa barang tersebut
diproduksi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri
dari sistem ekonomi pasar adalah :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Semua alat dan sumber-sumber daya dikuasai pemerintah</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.
Hak milik perorangan tidak diakui</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
Tidak ada individu atau kelompok yang dapat berusaha dengan bebas dalam
kegiatan perekonomian</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Kebijakan perekonomian diatur sepenuhnya oleh pemerintah <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">4.
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Sistem Ekonomi Campuran</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Sistem
ekonomi campuran merupakan dari sistem ekonomi pasar dan terpusat, dimana
pemerintah dan swasta saling berinteraksi dalam memecahkan masalah ekonomi.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ciri
dari sistem ekonomi campuran adalah :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1.
Merupakan gabungan dari sistem ekonomi pasar dan terpusat</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">2.
Barang modal dan sumber daya yang vital dikuasai oleh pemerintah</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">3.
Pemerintah dapat melakukan intervensi dengan membuat peraturan, menetapkan
kebijakan fiskal, moneter, membantu dan mengawasi kegiatan swasta.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">4.
Peran pemerintah dan sektor swasta berimbang Penerapan sistem ekonomi campuran
akan mengurangi berbagai kelemahan dari sistem ekonomi pasar dan komando dan
ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="I">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Sistem perekonomian Jepang</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Negara jepang<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Jepang merupakan negara kepulauan yang
terletak di kawasan Asia Timur, tepatnya di sebelah Timur daratan Semenanjung
Korea. Secara astronomis, Jepang berada antara 30°LU - 46°LU dan 128°BT -
179°BT. Luas negara ini sekitar 377.837 km² dengan jumlah penduduk mencapai
127.333.000 jiwa. Berdasarkan kedua indikator tersebut, rata-rata kepadatan
penduduk Jepang sekitar 323 jiwa/ km². Sebagai negara kepulauan, Jepang
memiliki beberapa pulau besar sebagai pulau utama, yaitu Honshu (pulau terluas
sekaligus letak ibukota Jepang, Tokyo), Hokkaido, Kyushu, dan Shikoku. Selain
itu, terdapat lebih dari 3.000 pulau kecil yang mengelilinginya. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Di bidang perekonomian,
Jepang banyak memegang peran penting, pendapatan perkapitanya yang tinggi
(mencapai 31.410 US dollar) serta kestabilan mata uangnya mengantarkan Jepang
sebagai salah satu negara maju di kawasan Asia. Di percaturan dunia, Jepang,
Singapura, dan Korea Selatan mendapat julukan “Macan Asia” karena kemampuan
negara - negara tersebut dalam memperkukuh pengaruh perekonomiannya di kawasan
Asia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jepang menganut sistem
negara <b><i>monarki konstitusional</i></b> yang sangat membatasi kekuasaan Kaisar
Jepang. Sebagai kepala negara seremonial, kedudukan Kaisar Jepang diatur dalam
konstitusi sebagai "simbol negara dan pemersatu rakyat". Kekuasaan
pemerintah berada di tangan Perdana Menteri Jepang dan anggota terpilih
Parlemen Jepang, sementara kedaulatan sepenuhnya berada di tangan rakyat
Jepang. Kaisar Jepang bertindak sebagai kepala negara dalam urusan diplomatik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Parlemen Jepang adalah
parlemen dua kamar yang dibentuk mengikuti sistem Inggris. Parlemen Jepang
terdiri dari Majelis Rendah dan Majelis Tinggi. Majelis Rendah Jepang terdiri
dari 480 anggota dewan. Anggota majelis rendah dipilih secara langsung oleh
rakyat setiap 4 tahun sekali atau setelah majelis rendah dibubarkan. Majelis
Tinggi Jepang terdiri dari 242 anggota dewan yang memiliki masa jabatan 6
tahun, dan dipilih langsung oleh rakyat. Warganegara Jepang berusia 20 tahun ke
atas memiliki hak untuk memilih.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ekonomi<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sejak periode Meiji
(1868-1912), Jepang mulai menganut <b>ekonomi
pasar bebas</b> dan mengadopsi <b>kapitalisme</b>
model Inggris dan Amerika Serikat.. Lebih dari 3.000 orang Eropa dan Amerika
didatangkan sebagai tenaga pengajar di Jepang. Pada awal periode Meiji,
pemerintah membangun jalan kereta api, jalan raya, dan memulai reformasi
kepemilikan tanah. Pemerintah membangun pabrik dan galangan kapal untuk dijual
kepada swasta dengan harga murah. Sebagian dari perusahaan yang didirikan pada
periode Meiji berkembang menjadi zaibatsu, dan beberapa di antaranya masih
beroperasi hingga kini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Pertumbuhan ekonomi riil
dari tahun 1960-an hingga 1980-an sering disebut "keajaiban ekonomi
Jepang", yakni rata-rata 10% pada tahun 1960-an, 5% pada tahun 1970-an,
dan 4% pada tahun 1980-an. Dekade 1980-an merupakan masa keemasan ekspor
otomotif dan barang elektronik ke Eropa dan Amerika Serikat sehingga terjadi
surplus neraca perdagangan yang mengakibatkan konflik perdagangan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jepang adalah perekonomian
terbesar nomor dua di dunia setelah Amerika Serikat,dengan PDB nominal sekitar
AS$4,5 triliun dan perekonomian terbesar ke-3 di dunia setelah AS dan Republik
Rakyat Cina dalam keseimbangan kemampuan berbelanja. Industri utama Jepang
adalah sektor perbankan, asuransi, realestat, bisnis eceran, transportasi, telekomunikasi,
dan konstruksi. Jepang memiliki industri berteknologi tinggi di bidang
otomotif, elektronik, mesin perkakas, baja dan logam non-besi, perkapalan,
industri kimia, tekstil, dan pengolahan makanan. Sebesar tiga perempat dari
produk domestik bruto Jepang berasal dari sektor jasa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Hingga tahun 2001, jumlah
angkatan kerja Jepang mencapai 67 juta orang. Tingkat pengangguran di Jepang
sekitar 4%. Pada tahun 2007, Jepang menempati urutan ke-19 dalam produktivitas
tenaga kerja.Menurut indeks Big Mac, tenaga kerja di Jepang mendapat upah per
jam terbesar di dunia. Toyota Motor, Mitsubishi UFJ Financial, Nintendo, NTT
DoCoMo, Nippon Telegraph & Telephone, Canon, Matsushita Electric
Industrial, Honda, Mitsubishi Corporation, dan Sumitomo Mitsui Financial adalah
10 besar perusahaan Jepang pada tahun 2008.Sejumlah 326 perusahaan Jepang masuk
ke dalam daftar Forbes Global 2000 atau 16,3% dari 2000 perusahaan publik
terbesar di dunia (data tahun 2006). Bursa Saham Tokyo memiliki total
kapitalisasi pasar terbesar nomor dua di dunia. Indeks dari 225 saham
perusahaan besar yang diperdagangkan di Bursa Saham Tokyo disebut Nikkei 225.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Dalam Indeks Kemudahan
Berbisnis, Jepang menempati peringkat ke-12, dan termasuk salah satu negara
maju dengan birokrasi paling sederhana. Kapitalisme model Jepang memiliki
sejumlah ciri khas. Keiretsu adalah grup usaha yang beranggotakan perusahaan
yang saling memiliki kerja sama bisnis dan kepemilikan saham. Negosiasi upah
(shuntō) berikut perbaikan kondisi kerja antara manajemen dan serikat buruh
dilakukan setiap awal musim semi. Budaya bisnis Jepang mengenal konsep-konsep
lokal, seperti Sistem Nenkō, nemawashi, salaryman, dan office lady. Perusahaan
di Jepang mengenal kenaikan pangkat berdasarkan senioritas dan jaminan
pekerjaan seumur hidup. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jepang adalah negara
pengimpor hasil laut terbesar di dunia (senilai AS$ 14 miliar).[76] Jepang
berada di peringkat ke-6 setelah RRC, Peru, Amerika Serikat, Indonesia, dan
Chili, dengan total tangkapan ikan yang terus menurun sejak 1996. Pertanian
adalah sektor industri andalan hingga beberapa tahun seusai Perang Dunia II.
Menurut sensus tahun 1950, sekitar 50% angkatan kerja berada di bidang
pertanian. Sepanjang "masa keajaiban ekonomi Jepang", angkatan kerja
di bidang pertanian terus menyusut hingga sekitar 4,1% pada tahun 2008. Pada
Februari 2007 terdapat 1.813.000 keluarga petani komersial, namun di antaranya
hanya kurang dari 21,2% atau 387.000 keluarga petani pengusaha.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Keunggulan perekonomian Jepang<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Berikut ini beberapa bentuk keunggulan Jepang di
berbagai bidang :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Keunggulan Di Bidang Pertanian<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Daratan Jepang banyak
terdapat gunung dan pegunungan, sehingga topografinya relatif kasar. Kondisi
ini menyebabkan Jepang memiliki luas wilayah pertanian yang tidak begitu luas,
yaitu hanya ± 16% dari seluruh wilayah daratannya. Akan tetapi, meskipun luas
wilayah pertaniannya relatif sempit, Jepang ternyata mampu menghasilkan produk
pertanian yang berkualitas. Hal ini dipengaruhi oleh kesuburan tanah dan
kemampuan sumber daya manusia dalam mengolah dan berinovasi di bidang
pertanian, terutama dalam pemanfaatan teknologi dalam menciptakan varietas -
varietas baru unggulan, pupuk, alat - alat pertanian dan obat - obatan. Hasil -
hasil pertanian Jepang antara lain padi, kentang, jagung, sayur - sayuran, teh,
jeruk, dan apel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Keunggualan Di Bidang Perikanan dan Peternakan<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ikan merupakan bahan makanan
kegemaran mayoritas penduduk Jepang. Oleh karena itulah pemenuhan akan konsumsi
ikan terutama ikan laut di Jepang sangat tinggi. Hal ini didukung oleh adanya
pertemuan arus hangat dan arus dingin (Kurosyiwo dan Oyasyiwo) di perairan
Jepang yang kaya akan ikan. Hasil - hasil perikanan Jepang meliputi ikan
salmon, makarel, tuna, hiu, haring, dan paus. Kesemuanya itu sebagian
dikonsumsi langsung dan sebagian lagi diolah sebagai makanan kaleng. Adapun
peternakan yang banyak berkembang di Jepang adalah peternakan babi, ayam, dan
sapi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Keunggulan Di Bidang Industri<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Jepang merupakan negara
industri besar. Bahkan saat ini Jepang menduduki peringkat kedua setelah
Amerika Serikat sebagai negara industri besar di dunia. Produk industri Jepang
telah tersebar ke berbagai pelosok dunia. Produk - produk tersebut meliputi
produk permainan, barang elektronik, mobil/otomotif, obat - obatan/bahan kimia,
tekstil, bahan makanan olahan, semen, kertas dan barang cetakan, kamera, dan
alat transportasi. Bahkan, saat ini hasil industri otomotif Jepang merupakan
hasil industri otomotif terbesar dunia. Hasil pembangunan negara Jepang di
bidang industri ini sangat luar biasa, mengingat Jepang miskin sumber bahan
mineral, sehingga sebagian besar bahan baku industri tersebut diimpor dari
negara lain, termasuk dari Indonesia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Kota - Kota Utama Jepang<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Adanya pemuasatan kota kota
di jepang yaitu;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Tokyo,
merupakan ibukota Jepang, sekaligus sebagai pusat pemerintahan, perdagangan,
dan pendidikan bertaraf internasional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Osaka,
merupakan kota terbesar kedua Jepang, sekaligus sebagai pusat industri tekstil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Nagoya,
merupakan pusat industri pesawat terbang, otomotif, lokomotif, dan industri
besar lainnya. Keberadaan kota ini oleh orang Jepang dianggap sebagai “ibukota”
Jepang di wilayah tengah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Kyoto,
merupakan ibukota Jepang hingga tahun 1868, kota ini sekarang berkembang
sebagai pusat pendidikan dan kebudayaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Ginza,
merupakan pusat hiburan, bisnis, dan perdagangan bertaraf internasional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Kenggulan Sumber daya manusia<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Kelebihan
ekonomi jepang adalah masyarakat jepang yang terus berinovasi dan memiliki
mental yang kuat, oleh karena itulah tidak heran jika banyak teknologi terbaru
yang ditemukan dan dibuat di Jepang. Sumber Daya Manusia yang luar biasa inilah
yang tidak dimiliki oleh negara lain. Bangsa Jepang adalah bangsa pembelajar
terbaik di dunia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mereka
belajar seperti melakukan ibadah agama, yang dipraktikkan dengan semangat yang
nyaris mencapai fanatisme. Mereka belajar dengan penuh semangat karena mereka
paham betul kegunaannya. Pengetahuan yang unggul, intelektual, dan moral akan
memberikan mereka kemajuan, kebahagiaan, dan Keunggulan. Semua belajar dengan
giat: pemerintah belajar, politisi, industrialis, para pekerja, kaum
intelektual, anak-anak, ibu-ibu, semuanya belajar. Di Jepang dikenal istilah <b><i>Joho
shakai, “the information intelligence society“</i></b>, masyarakat cerdas
dengan akses yang luas terhadap informasi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Belajar dan
mencari ilmu adalah jiwa dari masyarakat Jepang. Jepang juga membangun sistem
pendidikan terbaik di dunia. Nilai anak-anak Jepang dalam berbagai perlombaan sains dan
matematika dunia selalu berada di urutan tertinggi. Mereka tidak hanya
diajarkan ilmu pengetahuan secara efektif, tetapi juga diperkuat karakternya.
Mereka digembleng supaya memiliki disiplin yang tinggi. bisa berlangsung dari
jam 5 sore sampai jam 8, bahkan 9 malam, 3 kali seminggu<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Para ibu
juga sangat aktif mendorong anak-anaknya belajar. Mereka dikenal dengan “Kyoiku
Mama“, “Ibu Pendidikan”. Mereka akan meneliti kualitas sekolah yang akan
dimasuki anak-anaknya. Mereka mempelajari bahan-bahan pelajaran anaknya, dan
mendampingi mereka belajar. Setiap ibu sadar, satu-satunya cara mendapatkan
hidup yang lebih baik, adalah dengan anaknya sukses di sekolah. Jepang juga
mempunyai media pendidikan yang didukung penuh dengan dana yang besar dari
pemerintah. Jam tayang televisi NHK hampir separuhnya berisi program-program
pendidikan terbaik, baik untuk pelajar, petani, maupun manajemen perusahaan.
Stasiun televisi lainnya juga diwajibkan untuk memiliki program pendidikan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Keunggulan Birokrasi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Birokrasi di Jepang selalu
bercitra positif, bekerja dengan cepat, tepat, dan efisien. Badannya pun
ramping. Bandingkan dengan citra birokrasi kita yang terkenal lamban, tambun,
dan kental dengan aroma korupsi. Michael Williams pernah menulis di Wall Street
Journal, birokrat Jepang rutin bekerja 14 jam sehari. Kerjanya tidak diisi
dengan santai, tetapi bergelut dengan dokumen, saling berkonsultasi dan bertemu
dengan mereka yang menginginkan kenaikan anggaran. Pada saat-saat penting
penyusunan anggaran, birokrat di Kementerian Keuangan Jepang minimal bekerja
250 jam sebulan. Mereka jarang pulang ke rumah hingga di setiap kubikel kantor
selalu tersedia tempat tidur untuk istirahat. Dokter sesekali dipanggil untuk
memberi injeksi vitamin kepada mereka yang bekerja tanpa kenal lelah. Birokrasi
di Jepang terdiri atas lulusan-lulusan terbaik dari kampus-kampus prestisius.
Seleksi dalam satu tahun, 45.000 pelamar berebut 780 posisi pegawai negeri
sipil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><br /></span></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="I">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Penutup<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Daratan Jepang banyak
terdapat gunung dan pegunungan, sehingga topografinya relatif kasar. Kondisi
ini menyebabkan Jepang memiliki luas wilayah pertanian yang tidak begitu luas,
yaitu hanya ± 16% dari seluruh wilayah daratannya. Akan tetapi, meskipun luas
wilayah pertaniannya relatif sempit, Jepang ternyata mampu menghasilkan produk
pertanian yang berkualitas. . Hasil pembangunan negara Jepang di bidang
industri ini sangat luar biasa, mengingat Jepang miskin sumber bahan mineral,
sehingga sebagian besar bahan baku industri tersebut diimpor dari negara lain,
termasuk dari Indonesia. Kelebihan ekonomi jepang adalah masyarakat jepang yang
terus berinovasi dan memiliki mental yang kuat, oleh karena itulah tidak heran
jika banyak teknologi terbaru yang ditemukan dan dibuat di Jepang. Sumber Daya
Manusia yang luar biasa inilah yang tidak dimiliki oleh negara lain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">ü<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Referensi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/">http://en.wikipedia.org</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://www.google.co.id/">http://www.google.co.id</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="http://aparaturnegara.bappenas.go.id/">http://aparaturnegara.bappenas.go.id</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-23141277888120339012014-02-16T22:10:00.002+07:002014-02-16T22:11:09.879+07:00PERBANDINGAN PERENCANAAN DI BEBERAPA NEGARA<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">NEGARA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PERENCANAAN EKONOMI<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PERENCANAAN PENDIDIKAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">PERENCANAAN KESEHATAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">MEKSIKO<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-Menganut
sistim sosialis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bertumpu
pada pertanian & pertambangan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-mengikuti
program ekonomi (pronafide) untuk menigkatkan daya saing dan produktivitas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-mobilisasi
tambang minyak , small industry dll.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-wajib
belajar 6 tahun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-pendidikan
ditujukan pada keluarga miskin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-memberikan
bantuan pendidikan (de Dessarolo Humanio.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-program
KB & kontrasepsi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-diutamakan
bagi keluar miskin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">INGGRIS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sistim
ekonomi kapitalis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bergerak
di bidang industry manufaktur<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-peran
swasta besar ( PDB 60% dari swasta)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sistim
wajib belajar dari 5 sampai 16 tahun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sekolah
milik Negara <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bebas
biaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-pelayanan
kesehatan gratis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-perluasan
program ilmu kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-diorganisasi
oleh Negara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">AMERIKA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sistim
ekonomi kapitalis, federal&desentralisasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-dollar
AS sbg tolak ukur Negara lain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sumber
daya mineral tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bergerak
di bidang industry<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-3/4
penduduk bekerja di bidang industi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-tingat
pertumbuhan yang tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-dasar
& menengah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sistem
pendidikan adalh cerminan sisitim federal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-swasta
bebas mengembangkan pendidikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sisitem
S1 di pisahkan antara university & college<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-informasi
kesehatan terbuka<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bertujuan
untuk jangkaun kesehatan yang adil & merata<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-fasilitas
kesehatan yang canggih<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">CINA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-sisitim
ekonomi sosialis yg berubah menjadi kapitalis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-ekonomi
terbuka dan hubungan dngan Negara lain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-perdagangan
sangat penting,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-GDP
meningkat dari tahun ke tahun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-kemajuan
pendidikan di bahas bersama parlemen dan anggota<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-penghapusan
buta huruf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-wajib
belajar 9 tahun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-orientasi
pendidikan sesuai kebutuhan masa depan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-Peningkatan
kesehatan masyarakat desa & orang miskain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-imunisasi
nasional<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-asuransi
kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-mendukung
kampanye kesehatan masyakat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">AUSTRALIA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-System
ekonomi liberal demokratis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-memperkenalakan
UU perorangan(tenga kerja)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-mengadakan
pajak karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-melakuakn
desentralisasi pasar& tenaga kerja<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-PPH
tambang sebesar 40% <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-merekrut
mahasiswa international<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-peningkatan
mutu pendidikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-perncanaan
pelatihan pendidikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-srana
kesehatan yang berbasis teknoligi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-peningkatan
asuransi kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-kejasama
dengan Negara lain mupun orgaisasi lain<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-
standar kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">SINGAPURA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-Sistim
ekonomi pasar yang maju& terbuka<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-bergerak
di bidang ekspor, jasa& industry<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-berperan
dalam integrasi asean<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-jenjang
pendidikan yaitu; dasar(primary school), secondary(SMP), dan junior college<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-singapore
education untuk promosi & pengembnagan pendidikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-penyedian
utk semua kalanganm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-meningkatkan
kesehatan dengna program. Medisave, medishield,eidershiel ddan medifund<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-membangun
puasat kesehatan anak anak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">JERMAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-menganut
sistim ekonomi pasar social<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-beroerientasi
kepada ekspor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-industri
di topang oleh small indusri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-negara
tujuan pendidikan ke 2 setelah AS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-setiap
Negara bagian bertanggung jawab terhadap pendidikan di daerahnay<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-pendidkan
dilakukan ; taman kanak, sekolah umum,pendidikan tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-dilengkapi
teknoligi terbaru&terluas’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-wajib
asuransi kesehatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">-perwatan
yang terbaik & paling mahal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">KOREA SELATAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-ekonomi pasar terbesar ke 15 menurut PDB<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-membuka poyek proyek asing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-orientasi ekspor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-model ekonomi berorientasi pasar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-98% masyarakat berpendidikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-pendidikan dilaksanakan dalam jejnng primer(TK-SD), sekunder(SMP.SMA),
&pendidkan tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-dipengaruhi konfusianisme<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-adanya proyek hadiah nobel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-keperawatan menacu kepada industri yang di sediakan,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">RUSIA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-Menganut sistim ekonomi komunis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-mencapai stabilitas ekonomi dan pelunasan hutang luar negri pada tahun
2007<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-ekspor didominasi minyak bumi&gas alam<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-semua sekolah di operasikan pemerintah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-filosofi pedidikan berupa menghafal bahan yan berupa materi pelajaran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-pendidkan dassar adalah wajib.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-gaji guru termasuk termurah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-bidan kesehatan di pimpi oleh seorang mentri kesehatan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-kesehatan yan semula gratis berubah menjadi berbiaya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-tingginya angka kematian dan kelahiran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 86.4pt;" valign="top" width="115">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">INDONESIA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 139.5pt;" valign="top" width="186">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-mengnut sistim ekonomi campuran (liberal&sosialis)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-adanya campur tanan pemerintah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 133.2pt;" valign="top" width="178">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-pendidkan gratis memlaui dana BOS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-angaran pendidkan erasal dari APBN&APBD<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-penyediaaan pelayanan pendidikan non formal bagi anak putus sekolah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-menydiakan tunjangan bagi PNS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 119.7pt;" valign="top" width="160">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-melakukan kebijakan MSGS<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-melakuakn kebijakan program keluarga dan harapan hidup <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-bantuan kesehatan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-66763124902269534942014-02-16T22:08:00.002+07:002014-02-16T22:08:53.237+07:00Perencanaan di Negara Australia<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">I.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Negara Persemakmuran Australia
(Commonwealth of Australia) atau </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">biasa </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dikenal sebagai Australia
saja adalah sebuah negara di belahan bumi selatan yang juga </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">merupakan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> benua terkecil di dunia. Wilayahnya
mencakup seluruh benua Australia dan beberapa pulau di sekitar Samudra Hindia
Selatan dan Samudra Pasifik. Negara tetangga Australia disebelah utara termasuk
Indonesia, Timor Leste, dan Papua Nugini. Disebelah timur laut bertetangga
dengan Pulau Solomon, Vanuatu, dan Kaledonia Baru (secara administratif milik
Perancis), sementara di tenggara bertetangga dengan Selandia Baru</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">Pada 1 Januari
1901, ke enam federasi koloni ini dan Persemakmuran Australia dibentuk.
Semenjak berdirinya federasi, Australia telah berhasil mempertahankan system
politik liberal demokratis yang stabil dan tetap tunduk dalam Wadah
Persemakmuran. Jumlah penduduk terakhir yang tercatat adalah 20,4 juta jiwa dan
umumnya terpusat di kota-kota sepanjang garis pantai seperti Sydney, Melbourne,
Brisbane, Adelaide dan Perth (dan menjadi kota-kota besar di Australia). Ibu
kotanya terletak di Canberra, sementara di daerah gurunnya yang luas, jumlah
penduduk sangat sedikit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">Australia memiliki ekonomi campuran (mixed economy) yang sejahtera, dan
bergaya-Barat, dengan PDB per kapita sedikit lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan
Britania Raya, Jerman dan Perancis. Negara ini berada di peringkat ketiga pada
Indeks Perkembangan Manusia tahun 2004 dan keenam dalam kualitas hidup 2005
oleh hasil survei majalah The Economist. Pada tahun-tahun belakangan ini, ekonomi
Australia telah kembali setelah menghadapi ekonomi global yang melemah.
Pengeluaran yang meningkat dalam ekonomi dalam negeri telah menekan penurunan
ekonomi, dan keyakinan konsumen dan bisnis tetap kuat. Australia menekankan
reformasi sebagai salah satu faktor kunci di belakang kekuatan ekonomi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada 1980-an, Partai Buruh, dipimpin oleh Perdana Menteri Bob Hawke dan
Bendahara Paul Keating, memulai proses pemodernan ekonomi Australia dengan
mengambangkan dolar Australia pada 1983, dan mengatur sistem keuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak 1996, pemerintahan Howard telah melanjutkan proses reformasi
ekonomi mikro, termasuk deregulasi sebagian dari pasar tenaga kerja dan
penswastaan BUMN, terutama industri telekomunikasi. Reformasi yang cukup dalam
sistem pajak tak langsung dicapai pada Juli 2000 dengan diperkenalannya pajak
barang dan jasa (goods and service tax; GST) sebesar 10% yang sedikit
mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap pajak pemasukan pribadi dan perusahaan yang
masih melambangkan sistem pajak Australia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ekonomi Australia
tidak mengalami resesi sejak awal 1990-an. Pada Juli 2005, pengangguran masih
dalam kisaran 5%. Sektor jasa, termasuk pariwisata, pendidikan, dan jasa
finansial membentuk 69% dari PDB. Pertanian dan sumber daya alam hanya
membentuk 3% dan 5% dari PDB, tapi cukup membantu banyak dalam ekspor
Australia. </span><i style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pasar ekspor Australia
terbesar termasuk Jepang, Cina, AS, Korea Selatan dan Selandia Baru</i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. Hal
yang menjadi perhatian para ekonomis termasuk defisit anggaran (current account
deficit) dan juga tingkat hutang luar negeri bersih (net foregin debt) yang
tinggi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia
adalah salah satu ekonomi terkuat di dunia, dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi selama
hampir dua dasawarsa secara berturut-turut dan pengangguran turun hingga ke
tingkat terendah dalam satu generasi. Sebagai buah dari reformasi struktural
dan kebijakan. selama hampir tiga dasawarsa, ekonomi kini menjadi luwes,
berdayatahan dan makin terintegrasi dengan pasar global.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">K</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ekuatan
ekonomi Australia terlihat jelas dalam beberapa tahun terakhir atas kemampuannya
untuk bertahan dari sejumlah kejadian internal dan eksternal, termasuk
kekeringan yang parah, pembangunan rumah yang meledak dan krisis keuangan dan
ekonomi Asia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak 1991,
ekonomi riil Australia tumbuh rata-rata 3,3 persen per tahun. Nilai produk domestik
kotor (GDP) Australia pada 2007 sekitar $1 triliun. Pengangguran juga merosot,
dari tingkat tertinggi hampir 11 persen pada 15 tahun yang lampau menjadi di
bawah 5 persen pada 2008—tingkat yang terendah sejak 1970an.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagai hasil
dari surplus anggaran berturutturut, Australia kini dalam posisi fiskal yang
kukuh. Antara 2002–03 dan 2006–07, surplus anggaran Australia rata-rata antara
1 persen dan 1,6 persen GDP. Surplus ini telah dimanfaatkan utamanya untuk
melunasi hutang pemerintah. Setelah pada tingkat tertinggi pada 18,5 persen GDP
($95,8 milyar) pada 1995–96, hutang pemerintah neto terlunasi pada 2005–06,
kini Australia menjadi kreditur neto setara kira-kira 2,7 persen GDP ($28,1
milyar).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Struktur ekonomi yang stabil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagai buah penerapan reformasi struktural dan kebijakan yang
terus-menerus sejak 1970an, Australia kini memiliki struktur kelembagaan dan
peraturan yang sehat, stabil dan modern yang memberikan kepastian kepada dunia
usaha dan menawarkan tujuan investasi yang ramah. Sebagai bagian dari agenda
reformasi yang ambisius, Australia secara progresif telah merombak atau
memangkas banyak tarif proteksionisnya, memperkenalkan undang-undang persaingan
dalam negeri, melakukan deregulasi pasar keuangan, mengambangkan nilai tukar
mata uangnya, melakukan desentralisasi pasar tenaga kerjanya dan ‘memancangkan’
kebijakan makroekonominya..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia telah
menurunkan rintangan perdagangan dan investasi dan persaingan nyata berlangsung
di berbagai bidang ekonomi, termasuk di dalam sektor keuangan, transportasi
udara dan telekomunikasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak 1970,
secara efektif tingkat bantuan sektor manufaktur di Australia telah turun 35
persen hingga kurang dari 5 persen kini. Budaya persaingan dan inovasi ini
telah berhasil membuat banyak orang di dunia yang menggunakan teknologi,
kepakaran dan produk manufaktur Australia dalam kehidupan sehari-hari mereka.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kini,
infrastruktur Australia luas dan berkelas dunia, memberi penduduk dan dunia
usaha jasa transportasi; teknologi komunikasi dan informasi; sistem distribusi
fasilitas umum dan tenaga listrik; dan jasa keuangan domestik dan international
yang efisien dan handal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perubahan dan
penyerdehanaan sistem perpajakan telah memangkas biaya usaha secara nyata,
khususnya bagi para eksportir. Pajak barang dan jasa (GST) ditetapkan 10 persen
dan berlaku untuk hampir semua barang dan jasa. Tidak diperlukan meterai dalam
transaksi saham dan tingkat pajak usaha ditetapkan 30 persen. Pemerintah juga
menawarkan insentif pajak hingga 175 persen untuk mendorong dunia usaha berinvestasi
dalam penelitian dan pengembangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia terus
membangun di atas fondasi kembar reformasi struktural dalam negeri dan makin
meningkatnya akses pasar internasional, menikmati kemenangan melalui basis
ekspor yang berdaya saing dan inovatif dan tekad kuat terhadap liberalisasi
perdagangan dunia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Berdagang dengan dunia<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Nilai perdagangan barang dan jasa dua-arah Australia adalah $443,6
milyar pada 2006–07, atau sekitar 1 persen total perdagangan dunia. <i>Jepang adalah mitra dagang terbesar
Australia, diikuti oleh Cina, Amerika Serikat, Inggris dan Singapura</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ekspor barang
dan jasa Australia meningkat 16 persen mencapai nilai tertingginya dalam
sejarah $215,8 milyar pada 2006–07—atau 21 persen GDP Australia. Bisnis
Australia berdayasaing tinggi dalam berbagai sektor. Australia sudah lama
menjadi pengekspor komotidas pertanian, mineral dan energi. Akhir-akhir ini
Australia telah melakukan diversifikasi ke pasar ekspor jasa yang baru dan
manufaktur canggih.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sektor jasa
keuangan lanjutan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sektor jasa keuangan yang canggih Australia adalah pusat keuangan
kawasan yang utama, dengan sistem keuangan yang canggih dan pasar yang
transparan. Menurut Kajian Pasar Saham Global yang paling akhir oleh Standard
and Poor’s, pasar saham Australia merupakan yang kesembilan terbesar di dunia
dalam total kapitalisasi pasar dan kedua terbesar di kawasan Asia–Pasifik,
setelah Jepang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lebih dari 2000 perusahaan, dengan total kapitalisasi pasar $1.6
triliun, tercatat di Bursa Saham Australia pada 2007. Australia memiliki salah
satu tingkat kepemilikan saham tertinggi di dunia, lebih dari 50 persen
penduduk dewasa memiliki saham di perusahaan terbuka. Jam perdagangan Australia
berawal dari akhir jam kerja di Amerika Serikat dan pembukaan di Eropa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kedalaman, likuiditas dan kecanggihan pasar Australia menopang daya
tarik Australia sebagai pusat jasa keuangan global. Laporan Daya Saing Global
dari Forum Ekonomi Dunia 2007–08 menempatkan pasar keuangan Australia pada
peringkat ketujuh sebagai yang paling canggih di dunia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pasar saham Australia
menduduki peringkat ketujuh berdasarkan omset dan dollar Australia merupakan
mata uang yang paling aktif diperdagangkan keenam di dunia, setelah dolar AS,
euro, yen Jepang, poundsterling Inggris dan franc Swiss.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Status
Australia sebagai pusat reksadana Asia– Pasifik telah menarik perhatian lembaga
keuangan global sejak pertengahan-1990an.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagai hasil
skema wajib pensiun yang didanai oleh majikan universal, aset reksadana
Australia telah terkumpul sekitar $US864 milyar and tetap yang menjadi terbesar
di kawasan Asia–Pasifik dan terbesar keempat di dunia. Jumlah dan pertumbuhan
dana yang cepat tersebut menawarkan kesempatan bisnis yang besar kepada
kelompok keuangan internasional. Perusahaan-perusahaan luar negeri mengelola
sekitar setengah dana investasi Australia, baik secara langsung atau melalui
usaha patungan dengan perusahaan setempat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pada 2006–07,
sektor keuangan dan asuransi mencakup 7,3 persen ekonomi Australia (bandingkan
dengan 7 persen pertambangan, termasuk jasa pertambangan). Jasa keuangan
menikmati tingkat pertumbuhan riil tahunan 4,7 persen selama 20 tahun terakhir.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Investasi asing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia menyambut baik investasi asing. Australia mengakui peran
penting investasi asing untuk mempercepat pertumbuhan ekonomi, pengembangan
industri yang berdayasaing, penciptaan lapangan kerja dan peningkatan ekspor.
Investasi asing di Australia (investasi portofolio, langsung, derivatif
keuangan dan lainnya) pada Juni 2007 jumlah totalnya mencapai $1,6 triliun. Investasi
Portofolio investasi mencakup 63 persen total investasi asing. Pada 2006–07,
jumlah total investasi asing langsung mencapai $331 milyar. Selama satu
dasawarsa hingga 2007, Australia merupakan penerima neto investasi asing
langsung yang terbesar kelima di OECD.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia
sebagai pusat Kawasan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia juga menarik sebagai lokasi perusahaan internasional yang
ingin mendirikan kantor kawasan untuk mengambil keuntungan dari meningkatnya
kesempatan bisnis di kawasan Asia-Pasifik dan untuk masuk ke pasar dalam negeri
Australia yang sudah sangat maju.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perusahaan
tertarik oleh biaya operasi yang berdayasaing di Australia dibandingkan dengan
pusat kawasan lainnya dan tingkat keterampilan setempat yang tinggi.
Faktorfaktor lain yang menguntungkan Australia termasuk:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jasa
keuangan, hukum dan dukungan manajemen yang canggih.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lokasi
yang berdaya saing<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> teknologi informasi dan komunikasi yang
bermutu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lokasi
yang strategis di kawasan Asia- Pasifik yang berkembang cepat.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> kedekatan dengan Asia, dipadu dengan
lingkungan bisnis Amerika-Eropa<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">zona waktu
yang menguntungkan<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> stabilitas ekonomi dan politik<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lingkungan
yang menarik, aman dan ramah<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">masyarakat
yang berorientasi-Asia, majemuk secara budaya dan multibahasa.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia juga memiliki lingkungan peraturan yang ramah bisnis. Menurut
Bank Dunia, Australia adalah tempat tercepat di dunia untuk memulai suatu
usaha, dengan prosedur peraturan yang memerlukan hanya dua hari.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">OECD juga telah
mengidentifikasi Australia sebagai negara yang memiliki paling sedikit hambatan
pasar produk di antara 30 negara anggotanya, tingkat terendah kepemilikan umum
terhadap usaha dan dampak hambatan paling kecil peraturan usaha tentang
perilaku ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Fakta-fakta
kunci<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.9pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia
menikmati pertumbuhan ekonomi selama hampir dua dasawarsa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.9pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak 1991,
ekonomi riil Australia tumbuh ratarata sekitar 3,3 persen per tahun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.9pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Nilai perdagangan dua-arah barang dan jasa
Australia pada 2006–07 mencapai $443,6 milyar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.9pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Pasar saham Australia merupakan yang terbesar
kedua di kawasan Asia–Pasifik setelah Jepang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.9pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jumlah aset
dana investasi Australia mencapai $US864 milliard.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 31.9pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ekonomi yang kukuh<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia memiliki salah satu ekonomi yang paling terbuka
dan inovatif di dunia dan Pemerintah Australia bertekad untuk melanjutkan arah
ini. Pertumbuhan yang kukuh sejak dasawarsa 1990an diikuti dengan kinerja
produktifitas yang kuat. Ekonomi, politik dan lingkungan sosial Australia yang
stabil mendorong peningkatan investasi asing beberapa tahun belakangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sejak 1990, ekonomi riil Australia tumbuh rata</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">rata 3,3 persen per tahun. Nilai GDP
Australia pada 2006–07 sedikit di atas $1 triliun, menjadikannya ekonomi
terbesar ke 13 secara keseluruhan di dunia dan terbesar ke 10 diantara ekonomi
industri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagai hasil diversifikasi besar basis ekspor Australia,
Australia kini tidak hanya pengekspor komoditas, namun juga memiliki industri
pabrikan dan jasa yang canggih. Nilai ekspor barang dan jasa Australia mencapai
$215,8 milyar pada 2006–07, dengan ekspor jasa sebesar $46,2 milyar — 21,4
persen dari keseluruhan ekspor. Jepang masih tetap menjadi pasar ekspor kami
terbesar ($35,6 milyar pada 2006), selanjutnya Cina ($26,4 milyar), Amerika
Serikat ($15,5 milyar), Korea Selatan ($14,9 milyar) dan Selandia Baru ($12,7
milyar).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kajian <i>OECD baru-baru
ini memperlihatkan Australia sebagai salah satu dari enam pedagang ekonomi baru
dengan pertumbuhan tercepat.</i> Australia tangguh dalam insfrastruktur dan
inovasi teknologi informasi dan komunikasi (ICT). Australia juga memiliki
lingkungan ekonomi dan peraturan yang kondusif untuk bisnis dan angkatan kerja
yang terdidik serta terlatih baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Investasi ICT Australia menurut persentasi produk domestik
bruto (GDP) adalah ketiga tertinggi di antara negara-negara OECD. Bank sentral
(Reserve Bank of Australia) telah menemukan hubungan langsung antara belanja
ICT dan pertumbuhan produktifitas Australia yang kukuh. Kehadiran perdagangan
daring (e-commerce) diperkirakan akan menambah 2,7 persen pertumbuhan GDP
Australia dalam jangka waktu sepuluh tahun mendatang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Rekor pendidikan yang membanggakan<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sistem pendidikan Australia berstandar
tertinggi dan menikmati pengakuan internasional. Sekolah adalah wajib di
seluruh Australia, yang memberikan sumbangsih pada tingkat melek huruf 99
persen. Sekolah-sekolah kami mengembangkan keterampilan dan kepercayaan diri
para pelajar; lulusan universitas Australia unggul pada penelitian dan inovasi
terdepan; serta pendidikan kejuruan dan teknik memajukan sektor industri yang
sedang berkembang pesat.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Australia juga salah satu
penyelenggara pendidikan dan pelatihan terdepan di dunia bagi pelajar internasional,
termasuk pelatihan bahasa Inggris. Lebih dari 400,000 pelajar dari sekitar 200
negara menerima pendidikan Australia setiap tahun. Kursus ditawarkan baik di
Australia maupun di luar negeri.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sistem pendidikan dan pelatihan
Australia tunduk pada pengkajian ulang dan kendali berkelanjutan dari
pemerintah, industri dan badan-badan profesional untuk mempertahankan dan
meningkatkan standarnya yang sudah tinggi. Jaminan mutu di pendidikan tinggi
Australia berdasarkan pada kemitraan kukuh antara sektor pendidikan tinggi dan
Pemeritah Australia, pemeritah negara bagian dan teritori. Kemitraan ini
menjamin standar yang konsisten secara nasional dalam pemberian persetujuan dan
akreditasi, pengawasan luar dan audit mutu independen.</span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Komitmen kuat akan sains dan teknologi<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Australia berencana untuk
membangun budaya inovasi untuk memanfaatkan sebaik-baiknya jaringan informasi
nasional dan internasional, mendorong kreatifitas dalam semua bentuk
penelitian, memajukan kerja sama antara peneliti universitas dan industri, dan
menyebarluaskan hasil penelitian ke masyarakat luas. Di antara 10 hadiah Nobel
untuk Australia sejak 1915, sembilan diantaranya dalam bidang sains.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Inovasi dalam sains dan teknologi
merupakan lokomotif tangguh pertumbuhan ekonomi.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Australia dalam posisi yang baik
dan memiliki sumber daya yang bagus untuk membuat perbedaan dalam lomba inovasi
global. Australia memiliki lingkungan ekonomi yang dinamis dan berdayasaing
dengan produktifitas dan pertumbuhan tinggi, yang menghadirkan iklim yang ideal
untuk perkembangan inovasi.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Inovasi Australia sudah dikenal di
dunia, dan mencakup terobosan medis seperti kuping bionik dan perawatan flu
revolusioner hingga mesin nano pertama di dunia, kartu pintar tanpa sentuh, dan
mesin orbit.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Australia memiliki sektor teknologi
informasi dan komunikasi (ICT) yang canggih dan terdepan di dunia. Pasar
ICT-nya adalah kesebelas terbesar di dunia. Produksi barang dan jasa ICT
menghasilkan pendapatan sekitar $54 milyar dan penghasilan industri ICT
mencapai lebih dari $100 milyar. Produk domestik bruto (GDP) ICT sekitar 4,6
persen total GDP Australia. Penggunaan Internet di kalangan dunia usaha terus
tumbuh.</span>.<span lang="EN-US">
Sekitar 60 persen usaha kecil dan menengah melakukan pemesanan produk dan jasa
dalam jaringan pada 2006 dan 47 persen menerima pesanan dalam jaringan.</span>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Di antara semua kegiatan dalam
jaringan, mengakses layanan pemerintah dan layanan perbankan Internet adalah
yang paling populer, 59 persen orang di Australia pada 2007 menghubungi
pemerintah lewat Internet selama 12 bulan terakhir, dan 40 persen orang dewasa
melakukan transaksi bank dalam jaringan pada September 2006. Australia adalah
salah satu negara dengan peringkat kepemilikan telepon genggam yang paling
tinggi, dengan jangkauan jaringan paling modern tersedia bagi lebih dari 98
persen penduduk.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">PENDIDIKA</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">N<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">S</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">istem
pendidikan Australia adalah standar tertinggi internasional,mengembangkan keterampilan
siswa dan keyakinan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
lulusan universitas Australia unggul di ujung tombak penelitian dan inovasi,
dan pendidikan kejuruan dan teknis drive berkembang sektor industri. Australia
secara luas diakui sebagai pemimpin dunia dalam bidang pendidikan internasional
dan pelatihan bahasa inggri</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">s.</span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mahasiswa
Internasional </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Lebih dari 400.000 siswa dari sekitar
200 negara menerima pendidikan Australia setiap </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">t</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ahun. Kursus yang ditawarkan baik di
Australia dan lepas pantai. Selain program jangka panjang, banyak institusi
juga menawarkan program-program yang membantu siswa internasional dalam
pembelajaran mereka, seperti kursus 'dasar studi' dan bahasa Inggris.
signifikan jumlah siswa datang ke Australia dari Cina, India, Republik Korea,
Malaysia, Hong Kong, Jepang, Thailand, dan Indonesia. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Siswa tertarik dengan, pengalaman berharga keterampilan dan kualifikasi
yang ditawarkan oleh pendidikan Australia. Australia adalah tujuan yang aman
dan ramah dan masyarakat yang canggih dan berteknologi maju dengan reputasi
untuk kualitas, keunggulan dan kehandalan dalam layanan pendidikan. Selain itu,
lembaga pendidikan Australia telah mendirikan kampus di luar negeri dan
menciptakan kemitraan yang inovatif di negara lain untuk memberikan kursus di
negara asal siswa. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Karena Australia adalah budaya dan bahasa bangsa beragam, guru Australia
dan instruktur berpengalaman dalam berkomunikasi dengan siswa yang tidak
penutur asli bahasa Inggris. Siswa dari seluruh dunia tertarik ke Australia
untuk sebuah kesempatan untuk belajar bahasa Inggris di negara berbahasa
Inggris untuk belajar, bekerja atau tujuan perjalanan. Dalam pelatihan bahasa
Inggris, lembaga-lembaga bahasa yang fleksibel Australia melayani setiap
tingkat. Bahasa Inggris colleges menyediakan berbagai program, termasuk Bahasa
Inggris Kursus Intensif untuk Siswa Luar Negeri. sekolah ini berkembang dengan
baik, dan lembaga yang menawarkan program studi kepada siswa dengan visa
pelajar memiliki peraturan yang ketat untuk memastikan standar tertinggi. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Tingkat dukungan yang ditawarkan kepada siswa internasional yang belajar
di Australia dan orang tua mereka tidak ada bandingannya. Layanan Pendidikan
untuk Siswa Luar Negeri Act 2000 mensyaratkan lembaga yang menyediakan
pendidikan untuk siswa internasional untuk memenuhi standar nasional yang
konsisten dalam penyampaian pendidikan, fasilitas dan layanan. Untuk memastikan
konsistensi nasional, setiap penyelenggara pendidikan dan pelatihan yang
bertujuan untuk merekrut, mendaftar atau mengajar siswa internasional dengan
visa pelajar, atau mengiklankan kemampuan mereka untuk melakukannya, harus
terdaftar pada Com<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Universitas-universitas Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">memiliki</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hubungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">internasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang kuat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">terutama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tetangga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kita</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">di wilayah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Asia</span></span><span class="atn"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pasifik. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Staf</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">akademik</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">direkrut</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">secara internasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jumlah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">besar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">siswa internasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">memilih</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pendidikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">setiap tahun</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Demikian juga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">peningkatan jumlah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">siswa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">staf</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berada di</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bursa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">belajar dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bekerja</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">di luar negeri</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Overseas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Study</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">program</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendidikan Tinggi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kredit</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">membantu</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mahasiswa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang memenuhi syarat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">membiayai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">studi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mereka</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">di negara</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">lain</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="hps">Australian Education International</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">AEI) </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">internasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Pemerintah Australia, Departemen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Pendidikan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Ketenagakerjaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Hubungan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Tempat
Kerja</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">DEEWR). </span><span class="hps">AEI</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bekerjasama</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk mengembangkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kemitraan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">saling menguntungkan;</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menginformasikan kepada</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">komunitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">internasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kekuatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di
bidang pendidikan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">pelatihan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">penelitian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan inovasi</span><span class="longtext">; </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memajukan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">reputasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sebagai penyedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">layanan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berkualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">internasional</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">AEI</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memiliki</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">26</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kantor</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">internasional</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Beasiswa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mempromosikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pembangunan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keunggulan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di bidang pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan bertujuan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membangun</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">saling
pengertian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">antara Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Asia</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">Pasifik </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mitra</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Ini membawa</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">bersama-sama</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">beasiswa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dikelola
oleh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">DEEWR</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Agency for International</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Development</span><span class="longtext">,
</span><span class="hps">AusAID</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Penghargaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang
tersedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berprestasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">negara-negara peserta</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di kawasan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Asia</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">Pasifik </span><span class="hps">serta</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang ingin</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">belajar di luar negeri</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Visa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengembangan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">profesional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memungkinkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">organisasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk
memberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pelatihan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">disesuaikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">profesional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di luar negeri</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">manajer</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pejabat
pemerintah</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Program</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pelatihan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ini dirancang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">meningkatkan</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">keterampilan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">peserta</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">luar
negeri</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">profesional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">atau</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">manajerial</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk memenuhi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kebutuhan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengusaha</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">luar negeri</span><span class="longtext">.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tengah mendekati Pemerintah Australia
untuk pendidikan adalah roll out dari Revolusi Pendidikan dari 2008. Revolusi
ini akan melibatkan usaha tambahan, kolaborasi yang lebih besar dan fokus tajam
pada peningkatan hasil, dimulai dengan tahun-tahun awal dan pindah ke sekolah
dan ke dalam sistem pelatihan. Tujuan utama adalah untuk mendorong pertumbuhan
produktivitas. Reformasi akan melibatkan kerjasama di sektor publik dan swasta
dan kemitraan sejati yang melibatkan orang tua, anak, siswa, pengusaha dan
semua tingkat pemerintahan.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendidikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">anak usia dini</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="hps">Pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Revolusi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">melibatkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">rencana</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ambisius</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">komprehensif</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menyediakan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keluarga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggi</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">pendidikan anak usia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diakses</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">terjangkau</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">terintegrasi</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">dini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">penitipan anak</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memastikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">semua</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">anak</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sepenuhnya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">siap</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">belajar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan kehidupan</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Sebuah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Kantor</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">baru</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Child</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Care</span><span class="longtext"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">segera</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dibentuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">melaksanakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sejumlah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">inisiatif</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pemerintah kunci</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hal ini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">termasuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tujuan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyediakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">semua</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">anak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tahun sebelum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sekolah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">formal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">15</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">jam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pembelajaran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berbasis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kualitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bermain</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">selama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">minimal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">40</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">minggu</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">per</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tahun</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pendirian</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Belajar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tahun</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Development Framework</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menekankan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pembelajaran berbasis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bermain</span></span><span class="atn"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">-</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">,</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">awal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">melek huruf</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan berhitung</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">perkembangan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sosial</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">; </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">peningkatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">akses</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">awal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pembelajaran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bagi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">masyarakat adat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan anak-anak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kurang beruntung</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">investasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pelatihan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tenaga kerja</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">anak usia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">; </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">penciptaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Anak Usia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Indeks Pembangunan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pembentukan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">standar mutu</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nasional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dalam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">perawatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">anak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">prasekolah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">p</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">rimer dan sekunder
sekolah <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Melalui Pendidikan Digital Revolusi, Pemerintah Australia
menginvestasikan $ 1 milyar untuk memberikan akses ke teknologi komunikasi
informasi kelas dunia (ICT) mengajar berbasis pembelajaran di sekolah-sekolah
Australia. Inisiatif ini akan mendukung siswa untuk memperoleh keterampilan dan
pengetahuan yang dibutuhkan untuk berpartisipasi dalam masyarakat dan lapangan
kerja di dalam dunia digital. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Revolusi Pendidikan Digital memiliki sejumlah komponen. Salah satunya
adalah Sekolah Menengah Nasional Komputer (Dana). Pemerintah Australia
menginvestasikan $ 900.000.000 selama empat tahun untuk memastikan bahwa setiap
sekolah di Australia adalah sekolah digital, dilengkapi dengan alat-alat
pendidikan untuk Abad 21. Dana akan memberikan TIK baru atau upgrade untuk
siswa sekunder dalam Tahun 9 sampai 12. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Komponen lain dari Pemerintah Pendidikan Revolusi adalah melaksanakan
Pusat Pelatihan Perdagangan dalam program Sekolah, sebuah prakarsa $ 2500000000
dirancang untuk menangani keterampilan Australia kebutuhan dengan memberikan
kesempatan yang lebih besar bagi siswa menengah untuk berpartisipasi dalam
pendidikan kejuruan dan pelatihan saat masih di sekolah. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Mahasiswa kinerja di bidang penting dari membaca, menulis, konvensi
bahasa (ejaan, tata bahasa dan tanda baca) dan berhitung dinilai melalui tes
nasional. Semua siswa di tahun 3, 5, 7 dan 9 berpartisipasi dalam tes ini pada
bulan Mei tahun masing-masing. Orang tua diberikan dengan laporan merinci
kinerja anak mereka terhadap standar nasional, tingkat pencapaian nasional dan
rata-rata nasional. Informasi tambahan diberikan kepada sekolah-sekolah untuk
menginformasikan pengajaran dan pembelajaran program yang memenuhi kebutuhan
siswa. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Selain itu, hasil belajar siswa dalam melek sains (tahun 6),
kewarganegaraan dan kewarganegaraan (tahun 6 dan 10) dan melek ICT (tahun 6 dan
10) dinilai melalui penilaian sampel nasional. siswa Australia juga
berpartisipasi dalam dua studi internasional: OECD Program for International
Student Assessment (PISA) dalam membaca, literasi matematika dan ilmiah untuk
anak usia 15 tahun; dan Tren di Matematika dan Ilmu Study (TIMSS) tahun 4 dan 8
siswa. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Keragaman sekolah di Australia, dari pemerintah dan non-pemerintah
melalui untuk perkotaan dan pedesaan memberikan para orang tua dan pilihan
siswa dalam memilih pendidikan yang paling sesuai dengan kebutuhan mereka. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Sekolah di Australia biasanya berlangsung 13 tahun. Tahun prasekolah
persiapan umumnya diambil, tetapi tidak wajib, dan kebanyakan anak mulai
sekolah mereka sekitar lima tahun. sekolah Primer berlangsung enam atau tujuh
tahun dan sekolah menengah memerlukan lima atau enam tahun belajar lebih lanjut.
pendidikan sekolah adalah wajib sampai usia 15 atau 16, tergantung pada negara
bagian atau wilayah. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span><br />
</span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mengajar
di</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sekolah-sekolah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sangat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">interaktif</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Siswa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">didorong</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">berpartisipasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mengembangkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">keterampilan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">serta</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">memperoleh</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pengetahuan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">keyakinan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Rata-rata</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">guru</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">memegang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dua kualifikasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tersier</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">masing-masing</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mereka</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menerima</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">empat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tahun</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kualifikasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tingkat universitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan harus</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">didaftarkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sebelum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mendaftar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">untuk pekerjaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pelatihan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Guru</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">menyediakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">campuran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">teori</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">konten pembelajaran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pelatihan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kelas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">praktis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="hps">Guru</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">secara teratur</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berpartisipasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dalam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengembangan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">profesional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berkelanjutan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lebih meningkatkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keterampilan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mereka</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Berbagai macam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mata pelajaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diajarkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sekolah-sekolah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menyediakan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">landasan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">suara</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">studi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lebih lanjut</span><span class="longtext">.
</span><span class="hps">Delapan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bidang pelajaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">utama</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext">: </span><span class="hps">Bahasa Inggris</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">matematika</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">ilmu pengetahuan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">seni</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">studi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tentang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">masyarakat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan lingkungan hidup;</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">teknologi</span><span class="longtext">; </span><span class="hps">bahasa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lain</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">selain bahasa Inggris</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengembangan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pribadi</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">kesehatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jasmani</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Para siswa sekolah Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">telah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menunjukkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sistem</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsisten</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tampil
di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bagian atas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">studi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">benchmarking</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">internasional</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">seperti</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">OECD</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">PISA</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">TIMSS</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tersier dan pendidikan lebih lanjut </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
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<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Ada dua jenis program pendidikan pasca-sekolah: yang
ditawarkan oleh institusi dan industri dalam Pendidikan dan Pelatihan Kejuruan
(VET) sektor, dan yang ditawarkan oleh universitas-universitas dan
penyelenggara <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pendidikan tinggi. </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext">sistem VET Australia memberikan pelatihan praktis dan
berorientasi pada karier, melengkapi individu dengan keterampilan yang
diperlukan dalam ekonomi modern. peran kunci adalah untuk mendorong pertumbuhan
ekonomi dan keterampilan alamat kekurangan dengan membawa bersama-sama
mahasiswa, pengusaha, pemerintah, dan organisasi pelatihan terdaftar. Melalui
kepemimpinan industri yang kuat, sistem pelatihan nasional menyediakan
Australia dengan keterampilan yang dibutuhkan untuk memasukkan tenaga kerja
untuk pertama kalinya, masukkan kembali tenaga kerja, melatih untuk pekerjaan
baru, meningkatkan keterampilan untuk pekerjaan yang ada, dan terlibat dalam
belajar sepanjang hayat. </span><br />
</span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sistem
pelatihan nasional meliputi baik yang didanai publik TAFE (pendidikan teknis
dan lebih lanjut) institut dan penyedia pelatihan didanai swasta. <span style="background: white;">Melalui jaringan nasional lebih dari 4.000 organisasi
pelatihan terdaftar, sektor VET memberikan pelatihan bagi lebih dari 1,6 juta
warga Australia dari semua, latar belakang usia dan lokasi. Dari jumlah
tersebut, lebih dari 400.000 terlibat melalui Magang Australia Pemerintah
Scheme. Setiap tahun, di semua industri dan di banyak komunitas, VET siswa
memperoleh kualifikasi yang berkualitas industri, tinggi dikembangkan dan
diakui secara nasional. </span></span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext"><b>Keterampilan
Nasional Strategi</b> adalah sebuah </span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">rencana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Pemerintah Australia
yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan tenaga kerja terampil yang tersedia untuk
industri. Melalui strategi tersebut, Pemerintah bekerja dalam kemitraan dengan
industri untuk mengembangkan proyek-proyek industri yang dipimpin inovatif
untuk pilot strategi pendidikan kejuruan dan teknis yang dirancang untuk
menarik karyawan baru, mempertahankan dan / atau up-keterampilan pekerja baru
dan yang ada untuk memenuhi industri saat ini dan masa depan </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">kebutuhan. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white;">Universitas-universitas
Australia memiliki reputasi internasional untuk keunggulannya dalam mengajar
dan penelitian, dengan staf akademik direkrut dari Australia dan di seluruh
dunia. Universitas dan lembaga-lembaga pendidikan tinggi menawarkan
program-program yang mengarah ke sarjana dan berbagai gelar pascasarjana,
termasuk derajat yang lebih tinggi oleh penelitian. </span>Beberapa universitas
juga menawarkan program pendek dan program pengembangan perusahaan. </span><br />
<span class="longtext">Pada tahun 2007, Pemerintah Australia mengumumkan bernilai
6 miliar dolar dana Pendidikan Tinggi Endowment. <span style="background: white;">Ini,
bersama dengan tambahan $ 1,7 miliar dalam pendanaan untuk langkah-langkah
lain, akan memastikan pengembangan universitas kelas dunia lebih, dan
keunggulan keragaman, membina dan spesialisasi di sektor ini. </span></span><span style="background: white;"><br />
<span class="longtext">Sebagai bagian dari Revolusi Pendidikan, Pemerintah juga
telah mengumumkan bahwa jumlah sarjana nasional dan beasiswa pascasarjana akan
dua kali lipat selama empat tahun sejak awal tahun universitas 2009. </span><br />
<span class="longtext">Sektor pendidikan tinggi Australia terdiri dari 37 universitas
negeri dan dua perguruan tinggi swasta yang otonom dan diri-akreditasi; lembaga
pendidikan empat lain diri-akreditasi yang lebih tinggi; dan sekitar 150
lainnya lembaga yang terakreditasi oleh pemerintah negara bagian dan wilayah
(seperti perguruan tinggi teologis dan penyedia mengkhususkan dalam kursus
profesional dan artistik studi). </span></span><span class="longtext">Sebuah
universitas Amerika, Carnegie Mellon, memiliki cabang di Adelaide.
Universitas-universitas Australia mempunyai kampus di luar negeri</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">di Malaysia, Afrika Selatan dan
Vietnam. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext">Semua lembaga pendidikan tinggi Australia memiliki
mekanisme untuk memastikan bahwa kualitas tinggi program dan layanan mereka
adalah dipertahankan pada standar internasional. </span><br />
<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white;">Memastikan standar yang
tinggi</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sistem</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pendidikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pelatihan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tunduk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">perbaikan yang terus menerus</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">review</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">oleh</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">pemerintah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">industri</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">badan-badan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">profesional</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">mempertahankan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">meningkatkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">standar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">sudah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tinggi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="hps">Jaminan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di seluruh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sektor</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">VET</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">didasarkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pada</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kemitraan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">antara</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">penyedia
layanan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">negara</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">wilayah</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">dan sebuah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lembaga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">audit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">independen</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Kemitraan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memastikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">standar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang
konsisten</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dalam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendaftaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">akreditasi</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">monitoring</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">eksternal</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">audit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">independen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">dikenal
sebagai </span><span class="hps">Pelatihan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Framework</span><span class="longtext">)</span><br />
<span class="hps">Kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Universitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Agency</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">AUQA) </span><span class="hps">adalah independen,</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tidak</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">untuk </span><span class="hps">organisasi nirlaba</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mempromosikan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">audit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan laporan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tentang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jaminan mutu</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">dalam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan tinggi Australia</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Audit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">AUQA</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lembaga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memperhitungkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kedua kampus</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">darat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lepas pantai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">universitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">organisasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mitra</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di luar
negeri</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bila sesuai</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">AUQA</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">juga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">melakukan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">audit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lembaga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">akreditasi</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Kerangka Kualifikasi Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sistem</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang terintegrasi dengan kualifikasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di sekolah-sekolah</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kejuruan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pelatihan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">TAFEs </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">penyedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">swasta</span><span class="longtext">) </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sektor</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">terutama </span><span class="hps">universitas</span><span class="longtext">). </span><span class="hps">Ia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">didirikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pada
tahun 1995</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Selain</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pelayanan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dalam negeri</span><span class="longtext">,
</span><span class="hps">Pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Transnasional</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Strategi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">TQS) </span><span class="hps">kerangka</span><span class="longtext">
</span><span class="hps">melindungi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">meningkatkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendidikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pelatihan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">disampaikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di negara</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lain</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">AusLIST</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">sebuah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">inisiatif</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">baru</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kerangka</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">TQS</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">direktori</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">penyedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berkomitmen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kursus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lepas pantai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ke</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sebanding</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">standar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">program studi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang diberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Agar
memenuhi syarat untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">AusLIST</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">penyedia layanan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">program</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mereka</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">harus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memenuhi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendaftaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang ada</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">akreditasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengaturan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jaminan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kualitas<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">KESEHATAN</span></b><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemerintah
Australia, melalui Departemen Kesehatan dan Penuaan, menetapkan kebijakan
kesehatan nasional dan mensubsidi layanan kesehatan yang disediakan oleh
pemerintah negara bagian dan wilayah dan sektor swasta. Total pengeluaran untuk
kesehatan oleh semua tingkatan pemerintah dan sektor swasta rekening sekitar
9,8 persen dari produk domestik bruto Australia. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Seperti negara-negara lain, Australia menghadapi tekanan yang tumbuh di
pendanaan kesehatan karena perubahan teknologi, meningkatkan harapan pasien
dan, pada tingkat lebih rendah, populasi yang menua. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Pemerintah Australia mendanai layanan kesehatan universal dan
obat-obatan dan memberikan bantuan keuangan kepada rumah sakit umum, perumahan
fasilitas panti jompo dan rumah dan kepedulian masyarakat untuk usia. Itu juga
merupakan sumber utama dana untuk penelitian kesehatan dan menyediakan dukungan
bagi para profesional kesehatan pelatihan dan bantuan keuangan kepada siswa
tersier. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Negara bagian dan wilayah pemerintah menyediakan berbagai layanan
kesehatan langsung, termasuk pelayanan rumah sakit yang paling akut dan
kejiwaan. Negara bagian dan teritori pemerintah juga menyediakan pelayanan
kesehatan masyarakat dan masyarakat, termasuk kesehatan sekolah, kesehatan
gigi, kesehatan ibu dan anak, kesehatan kerja, kegiatan pengendalian penyakit
dan berbagai fungsi pemeriksaan kesehatan. <span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tanggung
jawab kesehatan utama pemerintah daerah dalam kontrol lingkungan seperti
pembuangan sampah, air bersih dan pemeriksaan kesehatan. Pemerintah daerah juga
menyediakan perawatan di rumah dan pelayanan pencegahan pribadi, seperti
imunisasi. <span style="background: white;"><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Publik
pembiayaan sektor kesehatan <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Pada tahun 1984 sebuah sistem perawatan kesehatan yang komprehensif,
Medicare, diperkenalkan. Medicare memfasilitasi akses oleh semua warga
Australia memenuhi syarat untuk perawatan rumah sakit gratis atau rendah-biaya
medis, Optometric dan publik, sambil membiarkan mereka bebas memilih pelayanan
kesehatan swasta. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>kontribusi keuangan Individu 'untuk sistem perawatan kesehatan
masyarakat adalah berdasarkan pendapatan mereka dan dibuat melalui pungutan
perpajakan dikenal sebagai pungutan Medicare. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Sistem rumah sakit umum Australia secara bersama-sama didanai oleh
Pemerintah Australia dan pemerintah negara bagian dan wilayah dan dikelola oleh
departemen kesehatan negara bagian dan wilayah. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Orang mengaku ke rumah sakit umum sebagai publik (Medicare) pasien
menerima perawatan oleh dokter dan spesialis yang ditunjuk oleh rumah sakit.
Mereka tidak dikenakan biaya untuk perawatan dan pengobatan atau setelah
perawatan oleh dokter yang menangani. <br />
pasien swasta di rumah sakit umum atau swasta bisa memilih dokter yang
memperlakukan mereka. Medicare membayar 75 persen dari biaya jadwal Medicare
untuk layanan dan prosedur yang diberikan oleh dokter yang menangani. Untuk
pasien yang memiliki asuransi kesehatan swasta, beberapa atau seluruh saldo
akan dilindungi. pasien swasta dikenakan biaya untuk akomodasi rumah sakit dan
item seperti biaya teater dan obat-obatan. Biaya-biaya ini mungkin juga
dilindungi oleh asuransi kesehatan swasta tetapi tidak tercakup dalam program
Medicare. <br />
Medicare Australia adalah lembaga dalam Departemen Pelayanan Masyarakat
bertanggung jawab untuk memproses dan membayar tunjangan Medicare untuk layanan
. Medicare Australia juga membayar manfaat farmasi di bawah Pharmaceutical
Benefits Scheme, yang mensubsidi daftar disepakati obat resep. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Untuk kedua layanan medis dan farmasi, keselamatan pengaturan bersih ada
untuk memastikan pasien yang membutuhkan tingkat tinggi pengobatan atau obat
selama tahun keuangan tidak dikenakan signifikan luar biaya-saku. Out-of-saku
biaya adalah perbedaan antara tunjangan Medicare dan apa pasien tagihan
sebenarnya. <br />
Pemerintah Australia juga menyediakan medis, pelayanan farmasi dan rumah sakit
untuk veteran, janda perang dan keluarganya yang memenuhi syarat di bawah
undang-undang yang dikelola oleh Departemen Urusan Veteran. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Pemerintah Australia menyediakan sekitar dua-pertiga (67 persen) dari
pengeluaran sektor publik untuk kesehatan, dan negara, wilayah dan pemerintah
daerah menyediakan sisanya. <span style="background: white;"><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Non-sektor
pembiayaan kesehatan pemerintah <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>rumah sakit swasta menyediakan sekitar sepertiga dari semua tempat tidur
rumah sakit di Australia. praktisi medis swasta menyediakan sebagian luar rumah
sakit pelayanan medis dan, bersama dengan dokter digaji, melakukan sebagian
besar pelayanan rumah sakit. praktisi swasta menyediakan sebagian besar layanan
kesehatan gigi dan sekutu pelayanan kesehatan seperti fisioterapi. <br />
Sekitar setengah dari seluruh warga Australia memiliki asuransi kesehatan
swasta. Empat puluh tiga persen dari populasi (atau sembilan juta orang)
ditutup dengan asuransi rumah sakit untuk biaya perawatan sebagai pasien swasta
di kedua rumah sakit umum dan swasta. Empat puluh tiga persen dari populasi
(atau sembilan juta orang) telah menutup pendukung untuk layanan non-medis yang
disediakan di luar rumah sakit, seperti fisioterapi, perawatan gigi dan
pembelian kacamata. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Pemerintah Australia berusaha untuk mencapai keseimbangan yang lebih
baik antara keterlibatan sektor publik dan swasta dalam pelayanan kesehatan
dengan mendorong masyarakat agar mengambil asuransi kesehatan swasta, sementara
itu juga mempertahankan Medicare sebagai jaring pengaman universal. Pemerintah
Australia membantu untuk membuat asuransi kesehatan swasta lebih terjangkau
dengan menawarkan 30 per rabat persen (dan rabat lebih tinggi bagi Australia
yang lebih tua) untuk biaya premi asuransi kesehatan swasta. jaring Keselamatan
untuk pelayanan medis dan farmasi membantu orang menghadapi tinggi tahunan
out-of-saku biaya kesehatan. Sebuah Extended Medicare Safety Net, diperkenalkan
pada tahun 2004, memberikan bantuan lebih lanjut dengan memenuhi 80 persen dari
out-of-saku biaya pelayanan medis yang diberikan keluar dari rumah sakit
setelah sebuah ambang tahunan tercapai. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>sektor swasta pengeluaran untuk rekening kesehatan bagi sekitar
sepertiga dari total pengeluaran kesehatan. Sebagian besar (sekitar 60 persen)
dari hal ini adalah orang 'luar biaya-saku dan sisanya pengeluaran dengan
kesehatan swasta dan asuransi lainnya seperti pekerja' kompensasi dan asuransi
motor pihak ketiga kendaraan. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bekerja
dengan dunia <br />
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">olaborasi
internasional memungkinkan Australia dan negara-negara lain untuk belajar dari
pengalaman gabungan dan memungkinkan Australia untuk memberikan kontribusi
terhadap kebijakan kesehatan internasional dan regional. Australia bekerja
dengan kementerian kesehatan di negara-negara lain, organisasi internasional,
dan kesehatan dan lembaga medis pada berbagai masalah kesehatan internasional.
Kerjasama dengan badan-badan ini juga membantu Australia untuk menetapkan
standar kesehatan internasional dan promosi mendukung kesehatan. </span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext">Australia menekankan khusus pada kawasan Asia-Pasifik,
bekerja sama dengan departemen kesehatan di Cina, Indonesia, Vietnam dan Pulau
Pasifik negara. Australia juga bekerja dengan organisasi internasional regional
seperti Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation dan
Organisasi Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Pembangunan pada isu-isu yang mempengaruhi
wilayah dan kesehatan masyarakat Australia. </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Isu termasuk pencegahan dan
pengendalian muncul dan muncul kembali penyakit menular, kesiapsiagaan
menghadapi pandemi, penguatan sistem kesehatan, dan kesehatan dan penelitian
medis dan perdagangan. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white;">Australia juga
berpartisipasi dalam riset internasional dan program kebijakan kesehatan
pertukaran dan memberikan kontribusi untuk yayasan penelitian seperti Dana
Persemakmuran dan Nuffield Trust. </span></span><span style="background: white;"><br />
<span class="longtext">Medicare Australia bekerja dengan Bank Dunia, AusAID dan
Organisasi Kesehatan Dunia untuk memberikan jasa konsultasi internasional di
berbagai bidang termasuk: pengembangan dan manajemen yang aman solusi bisnis
kesehatan online; kesehatan sistem pembiayaan; administrasi asuransi kesehatan,
sistem informasi kesehatan; farmasi desain dan sistem operasi, dan pelatihan
dan pengembangan kelembagaan.</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pengunjung</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ke Australia</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<span class="hps">Pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">telah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menandatangani</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">perjanjian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kesehatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">timbal balik</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pemerintah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Britania Raya</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Republik</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Irlandia</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Finlandia</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Italia</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Malta</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Belanda</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Norwegia</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">Selandia Baru</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan
Swedia</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Pengunjung</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">negara-negara</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang
memenuhi syarat untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bantuan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Medicare</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">perawatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">medis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang diperlukan</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Jika</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">perawatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di rumah sakit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diperlukan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">pengunjung</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tersebut</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memenuhi syarat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pengobatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">hanya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sebagai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasien</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Medicare</span><span class="longtext">, bukan </span><span class="hps">sebagai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasien</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pribadi</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Perjanjian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">antara</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">negara-negara ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sedikit berbeda</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Pengunjung</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lain</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tidak</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berhak</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Medicare</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">harus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mengatur</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">asuransi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kesehatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menutupi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tinggal</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Australia</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
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<span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Royal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Flying</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Doctor</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Service</span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">of Australia</span></span><span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
Royal Flying Doctor Service, didirikan pada 1928 oleh Pendeta John Flynn,
adalah unik ke Australia. Ini menyediakan darurat, 24-jam-sehari-hari
aeromedical 365-a-tahun dan pelayanan kesehatan kepada orang-orang yang
tinggal, bekerja atau melakukan perjalanan di daerah terpencil Australia.
Layanan ini memiliki kontak dengan beberapa 242 000 pasien setiap tahun,
sekitar 35 000 di antaranya adalah medis diangkut. Dari 21 perusahaan basis, 47
pesawat terbang layanan atas 'wilayah' nya dari 7 150 000 kilometer persegi dan
mencakup hampir 22 juta kilometer per tahun. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>Meskipun mungkin paling dikenal karena perannya evakuasi yang darurat,
Royal Flying Doctor Service melakukan beberapa 12 000 klinik perawatan
kesehatan setiap tahun, merawat sekitar 127 000 pasien. Hal ini terus membangun
kesehatan dasar perannya perawatan bagi masyarakat di daerah terpencil.
Sebagian besar dari pekerjaan perusahaan juga melibatkan konsultasi telepon dan
radio oleh dokter dan perawat dengan orang-orang di pos-pos terpencil. <span style="background: white;"><br />
</span>The Royal Flying Doctor Service menerima hibah dari negara, federal dan
pemerintah Northern Territory, tetapi juga mengandalkan dana yang disumbangkan
oleh sektor bisnis dan masyarakat umum. <br />
Sejak 1 Juli 2007, Pemerintah Australia telah sepenuhnya didanai penyampaian
layanan tradisional Royal Flying Doctor Service: evakuasi aeromedical, klinik
kesehatan primer dan pelayanan masyarakat, konsultasi telehealth dan dada
medis. Selama empat tahun sampai 30 Juni 2011, Pemerintah Australia akan
menyediakan hingga tambahan $ 154,4 juta dalam pendanaan berulang dan modal
untuk tujuan ini, sehingga total pendanaan selama periode ini setinggi $ 247
juta. Pemerintah negara bagian dan Northern Territory akan terus bertanggung
jawab untuk pembiayaan transportasi pasien antara rumah sakit </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">KESIMPULAN</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Negara Persemakmuran Australia
(Commonwealth of Australia) atau dikenal sebagai Australia saja adalah sebuah negara di belahan bumi
selatan yang salah satu ekonomi terkuat
di dunia, dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi selama hampir dua dasawarsa secara
berturut-turut dan pengangguran turun hingga ke tingkat terendah dalam satu
generasi.dengan menganut system
perekonomiaan campuran (mixed economy) yang sejahtera, dan bergaya-Barat.
Australia memiliki salah satu ekonomi yang paling terbuka dan inovatif di dunia
struktural dan kebijakan yang terus-menerus sejak 1970an, Australia kini
memiliki struktur kelembagaan dan peraturan yang sehat, stabil dan modern yang
memberikan kepastian kepada dunia usaha dan menawarkan tujuan investasi yang
ramah. Dan salah satu rencana Pemerintah Australia adalah menarik pajak karbon dari pihak-pihak bisnis
yang memiliki andil besar dalam pencemaran lingkungan. Rencana penerapan pajak
karbon ini merupakan hasil kesepakatan antara pemerintah Partai Buruh, Partai
Hijau dan dua orang anggota parlemen independen. Dalam rencana ini, pada tahap
pertama, harga karbon akan dipatok secara tetap dalam kurun waktu 3 – 5 tahun. Bicara
tentang Sistem pendidikan, pendidikan di Australia berstandar tertinggi dan
mendapat pengakuan internasional. Sekolah adalah wajib di seluruh Australia,
yang memberikan sumbangsih pada tingkat melek huruf 99 persen. Australia juga
salah satu penyelenggara pendidikan dan pelatihan terdepan di dunia bagi
pelajar internasional, termasuk pelatihan bahasa Inggris.<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white;"> Salah satu strategi pemerintah Australia untuk
meningkatkan tenaga kerja terampil yang tersedia untuk industry ada sebuah
rencana yaitu Keterampilan Nasional Strategi.</span></span> Mengenai kesehatan
Pemerintah Australia, melalui Departemen Kesehatan dan Penuaan, menetapkan
kebijakan kesehatan nasional dan mensubsidi layanan kesehatan yang disediakan
oleh pemerintah negara bagian dan wilayah dan sektor swasta. </span></div>
<span lang="EN-US">Sumber:</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/">www.wikipedia.com</a></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.jpnn.com/index.php?mib=berita.detail&id=81827">http://www.jpnn.com/index.php?mib=berita.detail&id=81827</a></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.australianewspaper.cpm/">www.Australianewspaper.cpm</a></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"> <a href="http://www.google/perekoomianaustralia">www.google/perekoomianaustralia</a></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://niasonline.net/2011/02/28/australia-akan-menerapkan-pajak-karbon/">http://niasonline.net/2011/02/28/australia-akan-menerapkan-pajak-karbon/</a></span><br />
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Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-38178026508216919362014-02-16T21:59:00.002+07:002014-02-16T21:59:53.714+07:00PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN EKONOMI DAERAH<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PENGERTIAN</b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perencanaan
pembangunan ekonomi daerah : adalah </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perencanaan
untuk memperbaiki penggunaan sumberdaya – sumberdaya publik yang tersedia di
daerah tersebut dan memperbaiki kapasitas sektor swasta dalam menciptakan nilai
sumberdaya swasta secara bertanggung jawab.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Perlunya
perencanaan pembangunan daerah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kondisi
sosial ekonomi yang berbeda dari setiap daerah </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perbedaaan
tingkat pembangunan antar daerah </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Adanya
ketimpangan ekonomi antar daerah </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Adanya
ekspansi ekonomi suatu daerah ke daerah lain .</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Effek
ekspansi suatu daerah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menurut
Myrdal (1957)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Backwash
effects</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Spread
effect </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menurut
Hirschman (1958)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Trickling
down effect</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Polarization
effect </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Akibat
buruk bagi daerah miskin</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kesulitan
dalam membangun sektor industri dan memperluas kesempatan kerja </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Sulit
merubah struktur perekonomian yang tradisional </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Adanya
perpindahan tenaga kerja ke daerah maju dari negara miskin.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Akibat bagi
daerah kaya</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Terjadi
kepadatan yang luar biasa di daerah kaya (congested), yang mengakibatkan
meningkatkan pengeluaran untuk menciptakan sarana publik </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menghadapi
masalah-masalah sosial seperti keamanan, politik dsb. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><b>CIRI-CIRI
PERENCANAAN DAERAH (PPD)</b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menghasilkan
program yang bersifat umum </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Analisis
perencanaan bersifat makro/luas </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Lebih
effektif digunakanuntuk perencanaan jangka menengah dan panjang </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Memerlukan
pengetahuan secara interdisipliner,general dan universal, namuntetap memiliki
sfesifikasi yang jelas.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Fleksibel
dan mudah untuk dijadikan sebagai acuan perencaanaan jangka pendek (1 tahun)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><b>ASPEK-ASPEK
PPD</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">1. Aspek
lingkungan ada 2 aspek:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - lingkungan internal</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - lingkungan eksternal </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">2. Aspek
potensi dan masalah </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">3. Aspek
institusi perencanaan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">4. Aspek
ruang dan waktu </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">5. Aspek
legalisasi kebijakan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><b>Fakto-faktor
yang mempengaruhi PPD</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. <span lang="EN-US">Faktor
lingkungan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - sosial </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - budaya </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - ekonomi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"> - politik </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">2. Fakor
sumber daya manusia perencana </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Ada 6 hal
pokok yang harus dimiliki seorang perencana</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menenal
wilayah perencanaan dengan berbagai permasalahannya ( know wwell the plkanning
area )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Memahami
adanya kepentingan – kepentingan yang bersifat intersektoral, heterogen dan
bervariasi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Memadukan
kepentingan antara masyarakat, pemerintah daerah dan pemerintah pusat
(interesting agregation)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Merumuskan
rencana aksi (action plan) dari hasil perencanaan (operational design</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Malaksanakan
rencana aksi (implementation)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Melakukan
evaluasi perencanaan (monitoring and evaluation).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Tugas
perencana daerah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengenal
masalah, sumber daya dan kebutuhan ekonomi pembangunan daerah </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menganalisis
kecendrungan, hambatan dan meramalkan pembangunan demografik dan ekonomi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menyususn
tujuan dan sasaran pembangunan daerah </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengembangkan
strategi dan alternatif kebijakan dan merancang rencana dan program pembangunan
daerah </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menganjurkan
pertimbangan lokal dalam kebijakan nasional </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menaksir
pengaruh rencana dan program secara sosial, ekonomi dan ekologi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengatur
proses pembuatan keputusan dan partisipasi pada tingkat dan masalah yang
berbeda </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengenal
dan merancang proyek individu dan menaksir kelayakannya untuk pelaksanaan lokal
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengembangkan
dan menggunakan instrumen pelaksanaan, penyelenggaraan dan pengendalian rencana
dan program</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Memonitor
dan mengevaluasi proyek, rencana dan program, serta merencanakan ulang sesuai
dengan perubahan kondisi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Faktor
sistem yang digunakan: aturan atau kebijakan yang digunakan oleh suatu
daerah/wilayah tertentu sebagai dasar / landasan pelaksanaan perencanaan
pembangunan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Prosedur
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mekanisme
pelaksanaan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pengambilan
keputusan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pengesahan, dll </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Sistem
perencanaan pembangunan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Didasarkan
pada Pembagian jenis-jenis perencanaan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Didasarkan
pada ideologipolitk yang dianut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Jenis –
jenis perencanaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Ruang
lingkup tujuan dan sasarannya: nasional, sektoral dan spasial atau aggregatif
atau komprehensive dan partial</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jangka
waktu analisis : panjang, menengah dan pendek </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jangkauan
dan hirarkinya: perencanaan tingkat pusat dan daerah</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Arus
informasi / proses hirarki penyusunan penyusunan dari ataskebawah (top down
planning) dan penyusunan dari bawah ke atas (bottom up planning) atau kombinasi
kedua nya </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Segi
ketepatan atau keluwesan proyeksi kedepan: indikatif dan preskriptif </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Sistem
politik : alokatif, innovatif dan radikal </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Perencanaan
berdasarkan ideologi yang dianut :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Liberalisme
/ kapitalisme </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Marxisme
/ komunisme </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">sosialisme
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">4. Faktor
perkembangan ilmu dan teknologi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menurut
PBB:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Developing
countries need to give more attension to the management of scientific and
technological institutions as well as to the application of science and
technology to public administration.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">5. Faktor
pendanaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Faktor
pendanaan pada dasarnya merupakan faktor yang sudah given: dalam arti memang harus ada untuk melakukan suatu
kegiatan atau aktivitas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Yang
harus diperhatikan adalah : </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Cost
and benefit analisys </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Perencanaan
pembangunan daerah dalam konteks pembangunan nasional</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pengertian
:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Wilayah
: merupakan wilayah administratif secara de facto dan de jure merupakan wakil
pemerintah pusat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Daerah
: merupakan daerah otonom yang mewakili hak-hak otonomi untuk mengatur dan
mengurus daerah sendiri. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Untuk Indonesia</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Merupakan
manifestasi dari sistem pelimpahan kewenangan dari pusat kedaerah. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Wujud
pelaksanaan otonomi yang diimplementasikan dalam proses desentralisasi yang
mana diberikan kewenangan melakukan perencanaan pembangunan secara mandiri dan
indipenden.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pembangunan
yang dilaksanakan di daerah merupakan bagian integral dari pembangunan
nasional, yang pelaksanaan perencanaan pembangunan di daerah tidak terlepas
dari pola perencanaan pembangunan yang dilaksanakan di pusat (dekonsentrasi)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pembangunan
daerah merupakan tugas pembantuan (medebewind) dalam pembangunan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perencanaan
pembangunan terpusat dengan alokasi sumber daya dan kegiatannya ada di
daerah. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Beberapa
pendekatan dalam PPD</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
Pembangunan Bangsa (Sociocultural Development Approach)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
Pembangunan Ekonomi (Economic Development Approach)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
Lain-lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Sociocultural
Daevelopment Approach</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pembangunan
Politik (political development)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pembangunan
sosial budaya ( socio – cultural development )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Economic
Development Approach</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> <b>
</b></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>ALIRAN
KLASIK :</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"> Adam Smith: pahamnya individualisme atau
laissez faire</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Marxisme
: paham sosialisme yaitu peranan pemerintah dalam mengatur
perekonomianmasyarakat. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">David
Ricardo : paham tentang penduduk merupakan faktor produksi yang akan
menciptakan pasar dan perkembangan ekonomi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mill
: menyatakan bahwa spesialisasi dan pembagian pekerjaan (division of labor) dan
keterampilan tenaga kerja dan produktivitas merupakan hal yang sangat penting.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> <b>
</b></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>ALIRAN
KEYNESIAN</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Campur
tangan pemerintah secara tidaka langsung dalam perekonomian masyarakat sangat
diperlukan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Analisis
ini penekanan pada jangka pendek </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Prinsip
keynes: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Akumulasi
modal (physical capital formation)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Peningkatan
kualitas dan investasi sumber daya manusia (human capital)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Harrod
Domard:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pertumbuhan
ekonomi ditentukan oleh tingkat tabungan (investasi) dan produktivitas kapital
(capital output ratio)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Arthur lewis : model “surplus of Labor” yaitu peren
penduduk sebagai tenaga kerja dan pengusaha meningkatkan produksinya. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> <b>
</b></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>ALIRAN
NEO KLASIK</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menyatakan
bahwa teknologi merupakan unsur pokok dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">PENDEKATAN
LAINNYA</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> <b>
</b></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>Pendekatan
Pembangunan Sosial </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menilai
pengaruh pembangunan terhadap kesejahteraan masyarakat melalui : distribusi
pendapatan dan tingkat kemiskinan (poverty) di suatu negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
pemerataan dengan pertumbuhan (Redistribution With Growth)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
Kebutuhan Dasar Manusia (Basic Human Needs </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>PENDEKATAN
KUTUB PERTUMBUHAN (GROWTH POLE APPROACH)</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Konsep
yang memfokuskan pada pembentukan pusat-pusat pertumbuhan (urban center) dalam
suatu wilayah pembangunan yang mempunyai potensi ekonomi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> <b>
</b></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>PENDEKATAN
KEBUTUHAN POKO TERDESENTRALISASI</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menekankan
kebutuhan pokok sebagai suatu prasyarat untuk medernisasi dan pembangunan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b>PENDEKATAN
PERENCANAAN YANG BERORIENTASI PADA TUJUAN</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Konsep
yang menekankan penguatan-potensi daerah sebagai prakondisi bagi pertumbuhan
daerah dan modernisasi </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-39963582305758409042014-02-16T21:39:00.002+07:002014-02-16T21:40:00.754+07:00INDUSTRI OLIGOPOLI<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">PENGERTIAN</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Oligopoli adalah struktur pasar yang
sebagian komoditi dalam pasar dikuasai oleh beberapa perusahaan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Perilaku perusahaan saling
bergantung (interdependence) atau berkaitan dengan dengan perilaku pesaingnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Terjadinya struktur pasar Oligopoli disebabkan
adanya hambatan masuk seperti antara lain skala ekonomi, larangan legal, merk
yang kuat melalui iklan yang intensif dalam waktu yang lama dan memiliki
kendali atas sumber daya yang penting. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Industri Oligopoli yang
produknya homogen seperti baja, semen dan minyak makin tinggi tingkat
interdependensinya (peka terhadap kebijakan pesaingnya) jika dibandingkan
dengan yang produknya berbeda corak (differentiated product) seperti mie, mobil
dan elektronik (tidak terlalu peka terhadap kebijakan harga pesaingnya). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Dalam pasar Oligopoli yang hanya
ada beberapa perusahaan saja bisa melakukan kolusi atau membuat kesepakatan
harga dan tingkat output. Persetujuan antar perusahaan dalam industri untuk
membagi-bagi pasar dan menetapkan harga adalah untuk mengurangi persaingan dan
meningkatkan laba </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Interdependensi antar perusahaan
dalam industri Oligopoli menyebabkan perilaku perusahaan sulit dianalisis. Ciri
Oligopoli yang <i>interdeterminat </i>menyebabkan tidak ada suatu model yang
umum untuk membahas teori perilaku-perilaku Oligopoli.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Model-model perilaku industri
Oligopoli yang ada antara lain Kartel, Pimpinan Harga, Harga Ongkos Rata-Rata
dan Harga Batas.</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">ASUMSI</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal;"> </span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US">Dalam pasar terdapat sejumlah kecil perusahaan yang menguasai pasar </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Perusahaan-perusahaan industri
dalam pasar dapat saja jumlahnya relatif banyak namun memiliki skala produksi
yang berbeda-beda. Perusahan dengan skala produksi besar hingga output
jumlahnya besar dan bisa menguasai pasar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Ada juga perusahaan pesaing yang
memiliki keunggulan bersaing lainnya sehingga output mereka mampu
menguasai pasar. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal;"> </span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US">Produk yang dihasilkan adalah homogen/diferensiasi produk </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Perbedaan penampilan produk
menentukan perbedaan perilaku bersaing bagi perusahaan. Perusahaan dengan
output homogen bagi perusahaan industri yang mapan akan bersaing secara bebas.
Konsumen pun bebas memilih karena output produsen dalam pasar adalah sama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Bagi perusahaan dengan output
berbeda corak, keadaan persaingan akan berubah. Perbedaan corak akan
menyebabkan keunggulan ekstra bagi produsen yang bersangkutan dan mampu menjadi
dominan lalu menguasai pasar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal;"> </span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US">Produsen sebagai penentu harga (Price Maker/Price Setter)</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i><span lang="EN-US">Beberapa perusahaan yang menguasai
pasar dengan memiliki keunggulan bersaing secara alamiah seperti jumlah modal
besar, efisien dalam berproduksi maupun dominan karena pembedaan produk yang
mereka ciptakan, promosi, kolusi maupun lainnya sehingga dapat mengatur output
dan harga jual yang berlaku dipasar selanjutnya keuntungan meningkat dan
perusahaan mapan menjadi makin dominan dalam pasar. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal;"> </span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US">Rintangan bagi perusahaan lain untuk keluar-masuk pasar </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Rintangan pasar dapat berupa <i>rintangan
alamiah </i>seperti keunggulan dalam kepemilikan sumber daya, efisien dalam
produksi dan manajemen bisnis yang unggulmaupun <i>rintangan artifisial </i>berupa
legalitas ditunjuk oleh pemerintah maupun kolusi formal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Perusahaan dominan pada dasarnya
menghalangi calon pesaing untuk memasuki pasar, dengan menurunkan harga jual
agar calon pesaing tidak tertarik memasuki pasar. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Keunggulan artifisial yang
dimiliki oligopolis mapan dapat memperbesar kekuatannya menguasai pasar dan
menrintangi calon pesaing untuk memasuki pasar. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i>5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal;"> </span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US">Produsen memaksimumkan keuntungan </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Model Perilaku Oligopoli</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kartel </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kartel adalah kolusi yang
formal. Kartel merupakan sekelompok perusahaan yang sepakat untuk
mengkoordinasikan keputusan produksi dan penentuan harga untuk memaksimumkan
laba dan dapat bertindak sebagai monopoli.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kartel Cenderung terjadi pada
produk yang homogen. Pengurus Kartel secara resmi mengatur quota, alokasi
produksi pasar dan keuntungan yang diperoleh.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Pada kenyataannya pelaksanaan
Kartel kurang stabil karena tidak memiliki ongkos rata-rata dan marjinal yang
sama. Permintaan sulit ditaksir karena elastisitas individu tidak mencerminkan
elastisitas kartel sehingga menimbulkan kesalahan penaksiran hasil-ongkos
marjinal kartel dan individu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Penetapan harga kartel harus
mempertimbangkan harga yang wajar (<i>fair price n’ fair profit</i>) sehingga
setiap anggota masih punya kebebasan dalam usaha penjualan seperti meningkatkan
ongkos, iklan dan potongan harga. Di Indonesia terdapat kolusi seperti Kartel
meski masih diawasi pemerintah seperti industri semen, tepung terigu dan lembaran
kaca. Kartel internasional contohnya adalah OPEC.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Pimpinan Harga (<i>Price Leadership</i>)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span>S<span lang="EN-US">uatu bentuk kolusi terselubung yang
menggambarkan dimana suatu perusahaan yang ada pada suatu industri tertentu
memimpin dalam menaikturunkan harga dan perusahaan-perusahaan lainnya mengikuti
langkah perusahaan tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Tiga tipe pemimpin harga :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pimpinan
harga dari perusahaan dengan ongkos yang rendah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pimpinan
harga dari perusahaan yang dominan sangat menentukan tingkat harga.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pimpinan
harga yang bersifat barometrik bagi perusahaan lain untuk menghindari resiko.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Harga Batas (<i>Limit Pricing</i>)</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"> </span></b><span lang="EN-US">Perusahaan Oligopoli menetapkan
harga sampai pada batas dimana mencegah
calon pesaing masuk pasar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Kolusi dan Kecurangan</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Kolusi / Kerja sama </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kolusi sangat tidak diinginkan
oleh konsumen namun disukai produsen. Yang dapat menimbulkan kolusi adalah
terjadinya pemusatan kekuatan pangsa pasar., kesamaan biaya, permintaan,
persaingan bukan harga dan adanya informasi yang makin sempurna.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kolusi atau kerja sama yang
dapat bertahan lama dan solid sehingga berjalan sangat efektif diantara mereka
dapat menyebabkan mereka makin mirip dengan pasar monopoli.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Karena tindakan mereka selalu
sama menghadapi pasar dan mereka dapat meningkatkan harga penjualan dan
memperoleh keuntungan yang lebih banyak.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Keberhasilan kerja sama dapat
pula menggoda anggota kelompok untuk melakukan kecurangan dan merusak kolusi.
Hal ini terjadi karena kolusi perusahaan mempertahankan harga yang tinggi. Pada
saat ada keinginan anggota untuk menambah keuntungan dengan jalan menurunkan
harga sedikit dibawah harga yang disepakati menyebabkan pembeli beralih pada
perusahaannya dan menambah keuntungan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Beberapa ekonom berpendapat,
penetapan harga cenderung merusak harga itu sendiri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Mengapa dalam kolusi atau kerja
sama harga merupakan elemen yang harus disepakati ?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <i>Pertama</i>, harga adalah
senjata yang paling efektif dan menentukan dalam persaingan, karena pengaruhnya
lebih bersifat langsung dan kuat serta
disukai kalangan pengusaha.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <i>Kedua</i>, harga adalah
bagian kritis yang harus dikendalikan. Pada saat kolusi sulit dipertahankan,
kolusi semu hanya berusaha menstabilkan harga yang harus disepakati
masing-masing perusahaan. Setelah terjadi kesepakatan baru persetujuan resmi
dan khusus dapat dilakukan seperti pembatasan produksi masing-masing
perusahaan, pengumpulan dan pembagian keuntungan dan lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Beberapa kondisi yang mendorong adanya Kolusi </b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Adanya konsentrasi dan
kelangkaan sehingga menyebabkan sedikit penjual utama yang ada di dalam
industri dan memudahkan kolusi.</span></li>
</ol>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Biaya atau ongkos yang sama
cenderung diadakannya kesepakatan sehingga harga jual juga sama.</span></li>
</ol>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Pergeseran permintaan yang
sistematis dapat diantisipasi dan dinetralkan mendorong perusahaan untuk
melakukan kesepakatan.</span></li>
</ol>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Adanya standar kenaikan harga
yaitu kondisi di mana semua perusahaan menetapkan suatu harga ditambah
persentase tertentu.</span></li>
</ol>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Persaingan bukan harga dapat
dilakukan apabila tedapat kesepakatan harga biasanya dalam bentuk
rancangan produk, advertensi agar perusahaan selalu menjaga kualitas
produk yang dihasilkan.</span></li>
</ol>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Informasi yang semakin baik
membantu mempertahankan harga yang sudah ditetapkan. </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">MACAM-MACAM KOLUSI</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kartel </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pengawasan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Persetujuan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kolusi Tersembunyi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-68755807880454257732014-02-16T21:27:00.001+07:002014-02-16T21:27:25.380+07:00Monopoli, monopsoni, dan Persaingan Monopoli<div class="PadderBetweenControlandBody">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.1. MONOPOLI: TEORI DASAR</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Perusahaan monopoli adalah industri, tetapi memiliki pesaing. Hal ini merupakan kurva agregat permintaan konsumen individual dan dianggap berslope negatif. Penjualan adalah fungsi nilai-tunggal dari harga yang dia jawab: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Q = f (p)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Dimana dq / dq <0. kurva permintaan diasumsikan memiliki invers yang unik, dan harga dapat dinyatakan sebagai fungsi-nilai tunggal kuantitas: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">P = F (q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dimana dp / dp <0. Perbedaan utama antara monopoli dan persaingan sempurna adalah bahwa harga monopoli meningkat sambil meningkatkan penjualannya. Sebuah pasar persaingan sempurna menerima harga sebagai parameter dan memaksimalkan keuntungan sehubungan dengan variasi output-nya; pasar monopoli memaksimalkan keuntungan sehubungan dengan variasi kombinasi harga-kuantitas produksi atau harga yang sesuai. Memaksimalkan keuntungan adalah invarian sehubungan dengan pilihannya dari variabel independen <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rata-rata dan pendapatan marjinal <o:p></o:p></i></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
Pada pasar monopoli 'total pendapatan (R) adalah hasil kali harga dan kuantitas penjualan: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R = pq<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Pendapatan marjinal (MR) adalah turunan dari total pendapatan dengan level output-nya. embedakan (7-3) dengan q, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">MR = <span style="mso-text-raise: -14.0pt; position: relative; top: 14.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75"
coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe"
filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:74.25pt;
height:33pt' o:ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.wmz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="99" /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1367056104"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
dimana dp / dp <0, MR adalah harga yang lebih rendah. MR dari Pasar persaingan sempurna juga ditentukan oleh (7-4).. Harga hasil dari dp / dp = 0. MR Pasar monopolis 'sama dengan harga kurang laju perubahan harga sehubungan dengan kuantitas dikalikan dengan kuantitas. Jika pasar persaingan sempurna memperluas penjualannya dengan 1 unit, pasar monopoli ini dapat meningkatkan keuntungan dia dengan pengeluaran output-nya, asalkan selain pendapatan marjinal melebihi (atau kurang dari) Marjinal cost .MR adalah positif untuk laba. memaksimalkan output, monopoli akan selalu pilih jalur elastis pada kurva permintaan nya, titik di mana () Kondisi kedua agar memaksimalkan keuntungan mengharuskan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-text-raise: -15.0pt; position: relative; top: 15.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:26.25pt;height:36.75pt' o:ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.wmz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="49" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="35" /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1026"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1367056105"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= R "(q)-C” (q) <0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Atau menambahkan C "(q) untuk kedua sisi kesenjangan tersebut, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">R "(q) <C" (q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Tingkat kenaikan MR harus kurang dari tingkat kenaikan MC. Kondisi pertama dapat dipenuhi di masing-masing tiga kasus yang disajikan dalam Gbr.7-3 pemerataan MR dan MC untuk (a) menentukan jumlah q<sup>0</sup> dan harga p<sup>0</sup>. Monopolis dapat menetapkan harga p<sup>0</sup> dan memungkinkan konsumen untuk membeli q<sup>0</sup>, atau dia dapat menawarkan q<sup>0</sup> Dijual memungkinkan konsumen untuk menentukan p<sup>0</sup> kedua -. kondisi order mengharuskan bahwa nilai algebraice dari kemiringan kurva MC melebihi dari kurva MR, yaitu , kurva MC harus memotong kurva MR dari bawah. Variasi kondisi ini dipenuhi pada titik-titik persimpangan dalam (a) dan (b) MR =. MC tidak menghasilkan titik keuntungan maksimal dalam (c) sejak kurva MC memotong kurva MR di atas pada titik persimpangan hanya mereka. Kondisi pertama puas,tapi kondisi kedua tidak bisa. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr> <td bgcolor="white" height="28" style="background: white; vertical-align: top;" width="28"><span style="left: 0pt; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; z-index: 251645440;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN">MR<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN>q<sup>0</sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN">q<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN">0<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN">q<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<tr> <td height="18"></td> <td></td> <td bgcolor="white" height="24" rowspan="4" style="background: white; vertical-align: top;" width="28"><span style="left: 0pt; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; z-index: 251650560;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN">0<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" style="mso-ignore: vglayout;" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" /> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jika monopolis mengikuti aturan persaingan sempurna dan disamakan MC dengan harga, ia akan menghasilkan output yang lebih besar dan mengenakan harga yang lebih rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Maksimalisasi Laba: Fungsi Produksi <o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Analisis monopoli biasanya dilakukan dalam fungsi biaya. Ada situasi, di mana ia diinginkan untuk mempertimbangkan fungsi produksi suatu monopoli dan pembelian input secara eksplisit. Asumsikan bahwa monopoli menggunakan dua input yang dia beli di pasar yang kompetitif untuk menghasilkan output-nya. keuntungan nya adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">π <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= R (q)-r<sub>1</sub> x<sub>1</sub> - x<sub>2</sub> r<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Mengatur derivatif parsial laba atas masukan sama dengan nol, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -15.0pt; position: relative; top: 15.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:21pt;height:33pt' o:ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image010.wmz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1027" width="28" /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1027"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1367056107"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= R '(q) h<sub>i</sub> - r<sub>i</sub> = O<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i= 1,2<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Dimana q = h (x<sub>1</sub> x<sub>2</sub>) dan h<sub>i</sub> = <span style="mso-text-raise: -15.0pt; position: relative; top: 15.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:21pt;height:33pt' o:ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image012.wmz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="28" /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1028"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1367056108"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>istilah menata ulang, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">R '(q) h<sub>i </sub>= r<sub>i </sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i = 1,2<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Maksimalisasi Laba mensyaratkan bahwa monopoli set nilai produk marjinal-pendapatan dari setiap input sama dengan harganya. Dalam monopoli kali pendapatan marjinal harga input produk marjinal sama; pada saat harga output persaingan sempurna harga input produk marjinal sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kondisi kedua agar memaksimalkan keuntungan mengharuskan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">R "(q) <- <span style="mso-text-raise: -13.0pt; position: relative; top: 13.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1029"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:117.75pt;height:33pt' o:ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image014.wmz"
o:title=""/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1029" width="157" /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1029"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1367056109"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i=1,2<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
Karena R "(q) = 0 untuk sebuah pesaing sempurna, C" (q) harus positif, atau dengan kata lain, fungsi produksi nya harus benar-benar cekung di sekitar titik keseimbangan. Karena R "adalah (q) biasanya negatif bagi monopolis, C-nya" (q) mungkin juga negatif dan masih memuaskan (7-14). Jadi, adalah mungkin untuk memiliki equilibriumat monopoli yang fungsi produksi tidak cekung sempurna, yaitu titik di mana hii> 0. cekung ketat fungsi produksi pada suatu titik di mana (7-12) sudah cukup untuk keseimbangan monopoli, tetapi tidak perlu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="background: white;"><br />
<br />
</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7.2. MONOPOLI: DISKRIMINASI HARGA <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br />
<br />
Pasar Monopoli tidak selalu butuh menjual seluruh output di pasar tunggal untuk harga yang seragam. Dalam beberapa kasus dia bisa meningkatkan keuntungan dengan menjual lebih dari satu harga. Dua kasus tersebut disajikan di sini. Dalam pertama ia mampu <br />
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Menetapkan harga yang berbeda di masing-masing dari dua pasar yang berbeda. Yang kedua pasar tersebut mampu menetapkan harga kontinum.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">DISKRIMINASI PASAR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Mempertimbangkan situasi di mana monopoli menjual di dua pasar dan menanyakan apakah dia akan mengenakan harga yang sama di keduanya. Harga diskriminasi layak hanya jika pembeli tidak dapat membeli produk di satu pasar dan menjualnya kembali dalam satu sama lain dan menjualnya kembali pada yang lain. Jika tidak, arbitrase akan membeli pada harga pasar rendah dan menjual pada harga pasar yang tinggi dalam pforit, dan dengan demikian menyamakan harga di semua pasar. layanan pribadi jarang dipindahtangankan, dan mereka sering menyediakan penjualan opportunityfor harga diskriminasi. Penjualan kembali komoditas seperti listrik, gas, dan air, yang membutuhkan koneksi fisik antara fasilitas yang dimiliki oleh produsen dan konsumen, sangat sulit, dan diskriminasi harga secara luas diikuti di tingkat settingutility. Harga diskriminasi sering mungkin di pasar spasial terpisah seperti "rumah" dan "asing" dari pasar monopoli yang menjual di luar negeri, bisa dijual kembali preverent dengan tingkat yang cukup tinggi. Jika harga diskriminasi dalam praktik monopoli di dua pasar yang berbeda, keuntungan adalah selisih antara pendapatan total dari pasar dan total biaya produksi:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>)+R<sub>2</sub>(q<sub>2</sub>)-C(q<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-15)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dimana q1 dan q2 adalah jumlah yang dijual di kedua pasar, R1 (q1) dan R2 (q2) adalah fungsi dari pendapatan, dan C (q1 + q2) adalah fungsi biaya. Mengatur derivatif parsial (7-15) sama dengan nol,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1030"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:28.5pt;height:20.25pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image016.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=38 height=27
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1030"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1031" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:28.5pt;height:20.25pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image016.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1031" width="38" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R’<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>) – C’(q<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>2</sub>) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:181.5pt;height:25.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image018.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="34" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1032" width="242" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Atau</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>) =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’<sub>2</sub>(q<sub>2</sub>) =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>C’(q<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MR di setiap pasar harus sama dengan MC output secara keseluruhan. Jika MR tidak sama, monopoli dapat meningkatkan total pendapatan tanpa mempengaruhi total biaya dengan menggeser penjualan dari pasar yang lebih rendah dengan MR tinggi. Persamaan MRs tidak selalu berarti kesetaraan harga di dua pasar. Yang menunjukkan harga dan elastisitas permintaan di dua pasar oleh p1, p2 e1 dan e2 dan menggunakan (7-6), persamaan MRs berarti<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>1</sub> (1-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>) = p<sub>2 </sub>( 1-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1 </u>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.25in left 293.25pt 299.25pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e<sub>1<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub>e<sub>2<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:56.25pt;height:21pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image020.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=75 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1033"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:56.25pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image020.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="75" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sempurna monopoli diskriminatif memproduksi lebih dari 10 unit yang dihasilkan oleh monopoli sederhana. biaya marjinal adalah 20, dan pendapatan rata-rata per unit yang terjual pada 60, berbeda dengan harga seragam 60 untuk monopoli sederhana.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-3 MONOPOLI: APLIKASI <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">teori dasar monopoli dapat dimodifikasi untuk mencakup berbagai situasi. Empat aplikasi yang dipertimbangkan dalam bagian ini.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">PERUSAHAAN MONOPOLI GANDA- PADA PASAR TUNGGAL</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Mempertimbangkan</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">menjual</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">dalam</span> <span class="hps">pasar tunggal</span>, <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">dapat</span> <span class="hps">menghasilkan</span> <span class="hps">output</span>-nya <span class="hps">di dua pabrik</span> <span class="hps">yang terpisah</span>. <span class="hps">Keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">perbedaan</span> <span class="hps">antara</span> <span class="hps">total pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">total biaya produksi</span> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">untuk kedua</span> <span class="hps">pabrik</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R (q<sub>1 </sub>+ q<sub>2</sub>) - C(q<sub>1</sub>) – C (q<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-16)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dimana q1 dan q2 adalah jumlah yang ia produksi di dua pabrik, R (q1 + q2) adalah fungsi dari pendapatan, dan C (q1) dan C (q2) adalah fungsi dari biaya. Mengatur derivatif parsial (7-16) sama dengan nol,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1035"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:26.25pt;height:20.25pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=35 height=27
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1035"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:26.25pt;height:20.25pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="35" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’ (q<sub>1 </sub>+ q<sub>2</sub>) – C’<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
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style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:15.75pt;height:20.25pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image024.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=21 height=27
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1037"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:15.75pt;height:20.25pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image024.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image025.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1038" width="21" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">= R’ (q<sub>1 </sub>+ q<sub>2</sub>)– C’<sub>2</sub> (q<sub>2</sub>) = 0</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">atau<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’ (q<sub>1 </sub>+ q<sub>2</sub>) = C’<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>) = C’<sub>2</sub> (q<sub>2</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MC</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">di</span> <span class="hps">tiap pabrik</span> <span class="hps">harus sama</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">secara keseluruhan. </span>Kondisi kedua mengharuskan pokok anak di bawah umur dari determinan Hessian yang relevan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>│<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R” – C”<sub>1</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>│<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-17)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>│<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R” – C”<sub>2</sub> │<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Alternatif dalam tanda dimulai dengan tanda negatif. pembaca dapat memverifikasi bahwa (7-17) mensyaratkan bahwa MC pada setiap tanaman harus naik lebih cepat daripada MR output secara keseluruhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">PERUSAHAAN MONOPOLI</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">GANDA</span><span class="atn">-</span>PRODUK<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dianggap</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">produser</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">bertindak</span> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">dua</span> <span class="hps">produk</span> <span class="hps">yang berbeda</span> <span class="hps">tetapi</span> <span class="hps">saling terkait</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">fungsi</span> <span class="hps">permintaan<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q<sub>1 = </sub>ƒ<sub>1 </sub>(p<sub>1,</sub>p<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>2 = </sub>ƒ<sub>2</sub> (p<sub>1,</sub>p<sub>2</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">jika</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> cross-</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">derivatif</span></span><span class="shorttext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">əqi</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">əpi</span> <span class="hps">(</span>i <span class="hps">≠ ј</span>), <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">positif</span>, <span class="hps">barang</span> <span class="hps">pengganti</span> <span class="hps">bruto</span>. <span class="hps">Jika mereka</span> <span class="hps">negatif</span>, <span class="hps">barang</span> <span class="hps">bruto melengkapi</span>. <span class="hps">Asumsikan</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">nilai-tunggal</span> <span class="hps">invers</span> <span class="hps">fungsi permintaan</span> <span class="hps">ada</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q<sub>1 = </sub>F<sub>1 </sub>(p<sub>1,</sub>p<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>2 = </sub>F<sub>2</sub> (p<sub>1,</sub>p<sub>2</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">di sini menunjukkan cross-derivatif positif melengkapi, dan turunan negatif menunjukkan pengganti. Akhirnya menentukan fungsi dari pendapatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R<sub>1</sub> = p<sub>1</sub> q<sub>1 </sub>= R<sub>1</sub> (q<sub>1</sub>,q<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R<sub>2 </sub>= p<sub>2</sub> q<sub>2 </sub>= <sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub>R<sub>2</sub> (q<sub>1,</sub>q<sub>2</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Berikut</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">əRi</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">əqi</span> <span class="hps">(</span>i <span class="hps">≠ ј</span>) <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">positif</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">melengkapi</span> <span class="hps">dan negatif</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">pengganti</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">adalah<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π = R<sub>1</sub> (q<sub>1,</sub>q<sub>2</sub>) + R<sub>2</sub> (q<sub>1,</sub>q<sub>2</sub>) - C(q<sub>1</sub>) – C (q<sub>2</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pengaturan derivatif parsial sama dengan nol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1039"
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v:shapes="_x0000_i1039"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1040" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:90pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image026.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image027.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1040" width="120" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C’<sub>1</sub>(q<sub>1</sub>) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1041"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:77.25pt;height:21pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image028.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=103 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1041"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:77.25pt;height:21pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image028.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image029.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1042" width="103" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">- C’<sub>2</sub> (q<sub>2</sub>) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=145 height=30
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image031.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1043"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1044" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:108.75pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image030.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1044" width="145" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1045"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:100.5pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=134 height=30
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image033.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1045"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:100.5pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1046" width="134" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Monopoli</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">ini</span> <span class="hps">lagi</span> <span class="hps">menyamakan</span> <span class="hps">MC</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">MR</span>. <span class="hps">Dalam</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-18) <span class="hps">secara eksplisit</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">account</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">keterkaitan</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Pertimbangkan</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">kasus</span> <span class="hps">di</span> <span class="hps">mana</span> <span class="hps">barang</span> <span class="hps">pengganti</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">əRi</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">əqi</span> <span class="hps"><</span>0 <span class="hps">(</span>i <span class="hps">≠ ј</span>). <span class="hps">Contohnya</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">lokal</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">memproduksi</span> <span class="hps">baik</span> <span class="hps">premium</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">biasa</span>. <span class="hps">MC</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">minuman bir</span> <span class="hps">akan lebih rendah</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">dianggap</span> <span class="hps">terpisah</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">lainnya</span>. <span class="hps">Peningkatan</span> <span class="hps">output dari</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">premium</span> <span class="hps">dicapai</span> <span class="hps">melalui</span> <span class="hps">pengurangan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">menyebabkan</span> <span class="hps">penurunan</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">bir</span> <span class="hps">biasa</span>. <span class="hps">Kondisi</span> <span class="hps">orde pertama</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-18) <span class="hps">mendikte</span> <span class="hps">suatu</span> <span class="hps">perbedaan harga</span> <span class="hps">yang optimal</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">dua</span> <span class="hps">bir</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">barang</span> <span class="hps">melengkapi</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">əRi</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">əqi</span>> <span class="hps">0</span> <span class="hps">(</span>i <span class="hps">≠ ј</span>), <span class="hps">MC</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">setiap</span> <span class="hps">yang baik</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">lebih tinggi</span> <span class="hps">daripada</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">itu</span> <span class="hps">dianggap</span> <span class="hps">baik</span> <span class="hps">saja</span>. <span class="hps">Biarkan</span> <span class="hps">yang baik</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">pisau</span> <span class="hps">cukur</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">pisau cukur</span> <span class="hps">lainnya</span>. <span class="hps">Ekspansi</span> <span class="hps">dalam output</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">pisau cukur</span> <span class="hps">melalui</span> <span class="hps">penurunan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">mereka</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">menyebabkan</span> <span class="hps">ekspansi</span> <span class="hps">dalam</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">pisau</span> <span class="hps">pada harga</span> <span class="hps">yang diberikan</span>. <span class="hps">Sebuah</span> <span class="hps">solusi yang</span> <span class="hps">optimal</span> <span class="hps">mungkin</span> <span class="hps">memerlukan</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">pisau cukur</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">kerugian</span> <span class="hps">karena</span> <span class="hps">efek</span> <span class="hps">menguntungkan</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">mereka</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">pisau</span><span class="atn">-</span>pisau.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">PERPAJAKAN</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">DAN</span> <span class="hps">OUTPUT</span> <span class="hps">MONOPOLI</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<br />
</span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Suatu lump-sum atau</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">pusat laba</span> <span class="hps">(</span>dengan <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">marjinal</span> <span class="hps">kurang</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">100</span> <span class="hps">persen</span>) <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">mengurangi</span> <span class="hps">laba setelah</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan keuntungan,</span> <span class="hps">tetapi</span> <span class="hps">tidak</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">meningkat</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">nilai</span> <span class="hps">pasar</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">unit tambahan</span>. <span class="hps">Monopoli</span> <span class="hps">harus</span> <span class="hps">menekan harga</span> <span class="hps">yang ia terima</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">setiap unit</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">menjual</span> <span class="hps">unit tambahan</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Kurva Linier permintaan dan MR digambarkan pada Gambar. 7-1. monoton penurunan permintaan, dan Bapak kurang dari harga untuk setiap output yang lebih besar dari nol. Penurunan tingkat MR adalah dua kali tingkat penurunan harga:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">p = a – bp<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R = aq-bq<sup>2</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MR =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1047"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=89 height=28
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v:shapes="_x0000_i1047"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sejak</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">dp</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">=</span><span class="atn">-</span>b <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">sebuah</span> <span class="hps">konstanta,</span> <span class="hps">jarak</span> <span class="hps">antara</span> <span class="hps">kedua</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">[</span>q <span class="hps">(</span>dp <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">dq</span>) <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">Bq</span>] <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">fungsi</span> <span class="hps">linier</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">output</span>. <span class="hps">Total pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">kombinasi</span> <span class="hps">harga</span><span class="atn">-</span>kuantitas <span class="hps">(</span>p0, <span class="hps">q0</span>) <span class="hps">sama</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">daerah</span> <span class="hps">Tq0</span> <span class="hps">Op0</span> <span class="hps">persegi panjang</span>. <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">OASq0</span> <span class="hps">daerah</span> <span class="hps">yang terletak</span> <span class="hps">di bawah</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">juga</span> <span class="hps">sama dengan</span> <span class="hps">total pendapatan</span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="38" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1049" width="238" /><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Hasil</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">ini</span> <span class="hps">berlaku untuk</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">tidak linear</span>. <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">umumnya<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1051" width="111" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dq = pq = R<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Karena</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">integrasi</span> <span class="hps">konstan</span> <span class="hps">sama</span> <span class="hps">dengan nol</span>. <span class="hps">Total</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan secara</span> <span class="hps">diberikan</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">bidang</span> <span class="hps">berbaring</span> <span class="hps">di bawah</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">MR</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>e) <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">suatu titik</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">didefinisikan</span> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">nilai</span> <span class="hps">absolut</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">laju</span> <span class="hps">perubahan</span> <span class="hps">proporsional</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">deviden</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">laju</span> <span class="hps">perubahan</span> <span class="hps">proporsional</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">harga</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 17.25pt center 3.25in;">
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mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 16.5pt center 3.25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 15.75pt 72.75pt center 3.25in;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1069" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:22.55pt;
margin-top:6.25pt;width:46.5pt;height:0;z-index:251657728' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 29px; margin-top: 7px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 64px; z-index: 251657728;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1069" width="64" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MR<sup>0</sup><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 136.5pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>D<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 19.5pt 66.0pt 92.25pt 166.5pt center 3.25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>0<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>q<sup>0</sup><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>MR<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>q<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1067" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:22.5pt;
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mso-position-horizontal-relative:text;mso-position-vertical-relative:text'
o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 29px; margin-top: 2px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 197px; z-index: 251655680;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image047.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1067" width="197" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">figure 7-1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 69.0pt center 3.25in;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:22.55pt;margin-top:6.95pt;
width:0;height:108.75pt;z-index:251660800' o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 147px; margin-left: 29px; margin-top: 8px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251660800;"><img height="147" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1072" width="2" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 69.0pt center 3.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 69.0pt center 3.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 69.0pt center 3.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 69.0pt center 3.25in;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1073" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:22.5pt;
margin-top:18.35pt;width:146.2pt;height:0;z-index:251661824' o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 29px; margin-top: 23px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 197px; z-index: 251661824;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image051.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1073" width="197" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><sub>R= aq-bq</sub><sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 97.5pt 159.75pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>q<sup>0<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></sup>q<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>figure 7-2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 21.0pt 97.5pt 159.75pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">karena perhatian terbatas pada kemiringan negatif dari kurva permintaan, akan lebih mudah untuk menentukan elastisitas permintaan sebagai angka positif. Hal ini bertentangan dengan Pasal 2-3 di mana elastisitas permintaan mengambil tanda-tanda lereng kurva permintaan yang saling berhubungan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MR</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">seperti</span> <span class="hps">yang diberikan</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-4) dapat <span class="hps">dinyatakan dalam</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MR =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>P (1+ </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1054"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=22 height=28
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v:shapes="_x0000_i1054"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1055" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:16.5pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image052.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image053.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1055" width="22" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">) = p (1 - </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:6.0pt;mso-text-raise:-6.0pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1056"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=6 height=27
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v:shapes="_x0000_i1056"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -6.0pt; position: relative; top: 6.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1057" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:4.5pt;height:20.25pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image054.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image055.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1057" width="6" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-6)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.0in left 384.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MR</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">positif</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">e</span>,> <span class="hps">1</span> <span class="hps">nol</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">e</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">1</span>, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">negatif</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">e</span> <span class="hps"><</span>1. <span class="hps">perbedaan</span> <span class="hps">antara</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">penurunan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">meningkatkan</span> <span class="hps">elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span>, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">pendekatan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">pendekatan</span> <span class="hps">elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">tak terhingga</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.0in left 384.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Sebuah</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">parabola</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">sesuai</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">kurva</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">linier</span> <span class="hps">Gambar</span>. <span class="hps">7-1</span> <span class="hps">disajikan</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">Gambar</span>. <span class="hps">7-2</span>. <span class="hps">Turunan</span> <span class="hps">pertama</span> <span class="hps">dari total pendapatan (</span>MR) <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">monoton</span> <span class="hps">menurun</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">mencapai</span> <span class="hps">nol</span> <span class="hps">pada tingkat</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">q0</span>. <span class="hps">Total pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">meningkat</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">e</span>> <span class="hps">1</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">q</span> <span class="hps"><</span>q0, <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">maksimum</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">e</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">1</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">q</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">q0</span>, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">menurun</span> <span class="hps">e</span> <span class="hps"><</span>1 <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">q</span>> <span class="hps">q0</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.0in left 384.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MAKSIMALISASI LABA</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">: <span class="hps">FUNGSI</span> <span class="hps">BIAYA</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Total</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">biaya</span> <span class="hps">dapat</span> <span class="hps">berdua akan</span> <span class="hps">dinyatakan</span> <span class="hps">sebagai</span> <span class="hps">fungsi</span> <span class="hps">output</span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R = R (q)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>C = C (q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Keuntungan</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">perbedaan</span> <span class="hps">antara</span> <span class="hps">total pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">biaya</span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R (q) – C (q)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">mengatur</span> <span class="hps">turunan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-7) sehubungan dengan <span class="hps">q</span> <span class="hps">sama dengan</span> <span class="hps">nol</span>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1058"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:24pt;height:21pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image056.png"
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src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image057.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1058"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1059" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:24pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image056.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image057.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1059" width="32" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R’(q) – C’(q) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’(q) = C’ (q)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mempengaruhi</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">kombinasi</span> <span class="hps">optimum</span> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">harga</span><span class="atn">-</span>kuantitas. <span class="hps">Sebuah</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span>, <span class="hps">keduanya,</span> <span class="hps">berdasarkan</span> <span class="hps">kuantitas</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">atau</span> <span class="hps">nilai</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span>, <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">mengurangi</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">kenaikan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span>-nya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Monopoli</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">tidak</span> <span class="hps">dapat</span> <span class="hps">menghindari</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">lump</span><span class="atn">-</span>sum. <span class="hps">Ini</span> <span class="hps">harus</span> <span class="hps">dibayar</span> <span class="hps">terlepas</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">besaran fisik</span> <span class="hps">nilai</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">atau</span> <span class="hps">jumlah</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span>. <span class="hps">Keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">nya</span> <span class="hps">menjadi</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R(q) – C(q) – T</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-19)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dimana</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">T</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">jumlah</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">pajak lump</span><span class="atn">-</span>sum <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">π</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">setelah</span> <span class="hps">pembayaran</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>. <span class="hps">Menentukan</span> <span class="hps">turunan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-19) <span class="hps">sama dengan</span> <span class="hps">nol</span>,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1060"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=32 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image057.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1060"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1061" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:24pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image056.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image057.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1061" width="32" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R’(q) – C’(q) = 0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’(q) = C’(q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Karena T</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">konstanta</span>, <span class="hps">itu</span> <span class="hps">lenyap</span> <span class="hps">atas</span> <span class="hps">diferensiasi</span>, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">dan harga</span> <span class="hps">ditentukan</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">persamaan</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">dan MC</span> <span class="hps">seperti yang akan</span> <span class="hps">terjadi</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">tidak ada</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">dikenakan</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Pajak</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">mensyaratkan bahwa</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">pemerintah</span> <span class="hps">membayar</span> <span class="hps">sebagian</span> <span class="hps">tertentu</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">selisih</span> <span class="hps">antara</span> <span class="hps">penerimaan</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">biaya total</span>. <span class="hps">Jika</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">tarif</span> <span class="hps">flat</span> <span class="hps">(</span>proporsi <span class="hps">konstan</span>), <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">setelah</span> <span class="hps">pembayaran</span> <span class="hps">pajak adalah <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R(q) – C(q) – t[R(q) – C(q)] = (1-t)[ R(q) – C(q)]<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-20)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dimana</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">0</span> <span class="hps">t</span> <span class="hps"><</span><span class="atn"><</span>1. <span class="hps">pengaturan</span> <span class="hps">turunan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-20) <span class="hps">sama dengan</span> <span class="hps">nol</span>,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1062"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=32 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image058.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1062"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1063" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:24pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image056.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image058.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1063" width="32" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(1-t)[ R’(q) – C’(q)] = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika <span class="hps">≠</span><span class="shorttext"> </span><span class="hps">1</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="shorttext">t </span><span class="hps">0</span><span class="shorttext">,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>R(q) – C(q) = 0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’(q) = C’(q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Karena</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">kondisi</span> <span class="hps">orde pertama</span> <span class="hps">adalah sama</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-8), <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">tidak terpengaruh</span>. <span class="hps">Satu-satunya cara</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">dapat</span> <span class="hps">menghindari</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">mengurangi</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">sebelum</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>. <span class="hps">Jika dia</span> <span class="hps">mampu menjaga</span> <span class="hps">sebagian kecil dari</span> <span class="hps">peningkatan</span> <span class="hps">laba sebelum</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>, <span class="hps">dia</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">setelah</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">menyamakan</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">MC</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Jika</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">tertentu</span> <span class="hps">α</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span> <span class="hps">per</span> <span class="hps">unit</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">dikenakan</span>,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π = R(q) - C(q) – αq<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1064"
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o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=196 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image060.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1064"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1065" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:147pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image059.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image060.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1065" width="196" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R’(q) = C’(q) + α<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-12)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Monopoli</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">setelah</span> <span class="hps">pembayaran</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">menyamakan</span> <span class="hps">MR</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">MC</span> <span class="hps">ditambah</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">unit</span>. <span class="hps">Mengambil</span> <span class="hps">diferensial</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-21),<br />
<span class="hps"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R</span> <span class="hps">"</span><span class="atn">(</span>q) <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">C</span>" <span class="hps">(</span>q) <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">+</span> <span class="hps">dα</span><br />
<span class="hps">dan</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1066"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:71.25pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image061.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=95 height=30
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image062.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1066"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1067" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:71.25pt;height:22.5pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image061.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image062.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1067" width="95" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Karena</span> <span class="hps">R</span> <span class="hps">"</span><span class="atn">(</span>q) <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">C</span>" <span class="hps">(</span>q) <span class="hps"><</span>0 <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">asumsi</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">kondisi</span> <span class="hps">orde kedua</span> <span class="hps">terpenuhi</span>, <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">dα</span> <span class="hps"><</span>0, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">penurunan</span> <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">optimal</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">meningkatnya</span> <span class="hps">tarif</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>. <span class="hps">Pengenaan</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">hasil</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">khusus</span> <span class="hps">dalam</span> <span class="hps">jumlah</span> <span class="hps">kecil</span> <span class="hps">yang dijual dan</span> <span class="hps">harga yang</span> <span class="hps">lebih tinggi</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Kembali</span> <span class="hps">ke</span> <span class="hps">contoh yang diberikan</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-10) dan <span class="hps">(</span>7-11) <span class="hps">dan menganggap</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">pemerintah</span> <span class="hps">mengenakan</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">sebesar</span> <span class="hps">8</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span> <span class="hps">per</span> <span class="hps">unit</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">monopolis</span>:<br />
<span class="hps"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">(</span>100q <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">4q2</span>) <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">(</span>50 <span class="hps">+20</span> <span class="hps">q</span>) <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">8Q<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1068"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:102pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image063.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=136 height=30
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image064.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1068"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1069" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:102pt;height:22.5pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image063.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image064.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1069" width="136" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q = 9<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p = 64<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = 274<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Penjualan</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps">mengurangi</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">1</span> <span class="hps">unit</span>, <span class="hps">kenaikan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">4</span> <span class="hps">dolar,</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">itu</span> <span class="hps">berkurang</span> <span class="hps">sebesar 76</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span> <span class="hps">sebagai akibat</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">pengenaan</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span>. <span class="hps">Kenaikan harga</span> <span class="hps">kurang</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">unit</span>, <span class="hps">tetapi</span> <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">menurun</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">lebih dari</span> <span class="hps">penerimaan pajak</span> <span class="hps">72</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span>. <span class="hps">Jika</span> <span class="hps">pemerintah</span> <span class="hps">memaksakan</span> <span class="hps">72</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">lump</span><span class="atn">-</span>sum <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span>, <span class="hps">itu akan</span> <span class="hps">menerima</span> <span class="hps">pendapatan</span> <span class="hps">yang sama</span>, <span class="hps">laba</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">itu</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">berkurang</span> <span class="hps">sebesar</span> <span class="hps">4</span> <span class="hps">dolar</span> <span class="hps">kurang</span>, <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">konsumen</span> <span class="hps">tidak</span> <span class="hps">perlu</span> <span class="hps">membayar</span> <span class="hps">harga yang lebih tinggi</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">produk</span>. <span class="hps">Akibatnya</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">sering</span> <span class="hps">agrued</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">pajak lump</span><span class="atn">-</span>sum <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">proporsi</span> <span class="hps">dari nilai</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">(</span>total pendapatan),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π = R(q) – C(q) – sR(q) = (1-s)R(q)-C(q)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:8.5pt;mso-text-raise:-8.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1070"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:170.25pt;height:22.5pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image065.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=227 height=30
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image066.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1070"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -8.5pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1071" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:170.25pt;height:22.5pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image065.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="30" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image066.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1071" width="227" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(1-s)R’(q) = C’(q)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-22)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dimana 0</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> <span class="hps"><</span>s <span class="hps"><</span>1. <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">dimaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">oleh</span> <span class="hps">aquating</span> <span class="hps">Mc</span> <span class="hps">ke</span> <span class="hps">bagian</span> <span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">Mc</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">monopoli</span> <span class="hps">itu</span> <span class="hps">diperbolehkan</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">mempertahankan</span>. <span class="hps">Berbicara</span> <span class="hps">total</span> <span class="hps">diferensial</span> <span class="hps">(</span>7-22).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1<span class="atn">-</span>s) <span class="hps">R</span> <span class="hps">"</span><span class="atn">(</span>q) <span class="hps">dq</span><span class="atn">-</span>R <span class="hps">'</span><span class="atn">(</span>q) <span class="hps">ds</span> <span class="hps">=</span> <span class="hps">C</span>" <span class="hps">(</span>q) <span class="hps">dq</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dan</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1072" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:126pt;height:32.25pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image067.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="43" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image068.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1072" width="168" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Karena</span> <span class="hps">kondisi</span> <span class="hps">orde pertama</span> <span class="hps">mengharuskan</span> <span class="hps">bahwa Mr</span> <span class="hps">menjadi</span> <span class="hps">positif</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">kondisi</span> <span class="hps">orde kedua</span> <span class="hps">menyiratkan</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">penyebut</span> <span class="hps">(</span>23/07) <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">negatif</span>, <span class="hps">dq</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">ds</span> <span class="hps"><</span>0. <span class="hps">Pengenaan</span> <span class="hps">suatu</span> <span class="hps">pajak</span> <span class="hps">penjualan iklan</span> <span class="hps">valorem</span> <span class="hps">juga</span> <span class="hps">menghasilkan</span> <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">output</span> <span class="hps">berkurang</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">meningkat</span>.<br />
<br />
<span class="hps">PERUSAHAAN MONOPOLI</span><span class="atn">-</span>MEMAKSIMALKAN <span class="hps">PENDAPATAN</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Ia telah mengemukakan</span> <span class="hps">bahwa perusahaan-perusahaan</span> <span class="hps">besar</span> <span class="hps">banyak yang</span> <span class="hps">tidak</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span>, <span class="hps">tetapi</span> <span class="hps">lebih</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">subjek</span> <span class="hps">penjualan</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">kendala</span> <span class="hps">yang</span> <span class="hps">sama</span> <span class="hps">atau</span> <span class="hps">keuntungan</span> <span class="hps">melebihi</span> <span class="hps">beberapa</span> <span class="hps">tingkat</span> <span class="hps">accertable</span> <span class="hps">minimum</span>. <span class="hps">Monopoli</span> <span class="hps">Keinginan</span> <span class="hps">untuk</span> <span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span> <span class="hps">R</span> <span class="hps">(</span>q) <span class="hps">harga</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">lebih rendah</span> <span class="hps">di</span> <span class="hps">pasar</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">yang lebih besar</span>. <span class="hps">Harga</span> <span class="hps">akan</span> <span class="hps">sama</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">hanya</span> <span class="hps">jika</span> <span class="hps">elastisitas</span> <span class="hps">permintaan</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span> <span class="hps">sama</span>.<br />
<span class="hps">Orde kedua</span> <span class="hps">kondisi</span> <span class="hps">mengharuskan</span> <span class="hps">bahwa</span> <span class="hps">anak di bawah umur</span> <span class="hps">prinsip</span> <span class="hps">penentu</span> <span class="hps">Hessian</span> <span class="hps">yang relevan</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 147.75pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>| R<sub>1</sub>” – C”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-C”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>|<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 147.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">|<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R<sub>2</sub>” – C”<sub> </sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>|<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">alternatif</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dalam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tanda</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dimulai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tanda negatif</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Memperluas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">minor</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">utama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">,</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<br />
<span class="hps"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R1</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">"</span><span class="longtext">- </span><span class="hps">C</span><span class="longtext">" </span><span class="hps"><</span><span class="longtext">0 </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">R1 </span><span class="hps">"</span><span class="longtext">- </span><span class="hps">C</span><span class="longtext">") </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">R2 </span><span class="hps">"</span><span class="longtext">- </span><span class="hps">C</span><span class="longtext">") </span><span class="hps">-</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">C </span><span class="hps">"</span><span class="longtext">) </span><span class="hps">2</span><span class="longtext">> </span><span class="hps">0</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Ini</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menyiratkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bahwa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">R1</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">"</span><span class="longtext">- </span><span class="hps">C</span><span class="longtext">" </span><span class="hps"><</span><span class="longtext">0. </span><span class="hps">MR</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">setiap pasar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">harus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">meningkat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">cepat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dibandingkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">MC</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keluaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">secara keseluruhan</span><span class="longtext">.</span><br />
<span class="hps">Asumsi bahwa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">perusahaan monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">permintaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">fungsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">biaya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">oleh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">7-10) dan </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">7-11) </span><span class="hps">mampu</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memisahkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ke dalam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dua</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang berbeda</span><span class="longtext">:</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">p<sub>1 </sub>= 80 – 5q<sub>1<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sub>R<sub>1</sub> = 80q<sub>1</sub> – 5q<sup>2</sup><sub>1</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 135.0pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">p<sub>2</sub> = 180 – 20q<sub>2 </sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R<sub>2</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= 180q<sub>2</sub> – 20q<sup>2</sup><sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C = 50 + 20(q<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>2</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Mengatur</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">MR</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">setiap</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sama</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">MC</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keluaran</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">secara keseluruhan</span><span class="longtext">,</span><br />
<span class="hps"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>80</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">10q1 </span><span class="hps">=</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">20<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span class="longtext"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span class="hps">180</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">-</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">40q2</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">=</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">20</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Penyelesaian</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q1</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q2</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menggantikannya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ke</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dalam</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">permintaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">persamaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">elastisitas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.0in left 284.25pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: center 3.0in left 284.25pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q<sub>1</sub> = 6<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>1</sub> = 5<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e<sub>1</sub> = 1.67<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 153.75pt 179.25pt 228.0pt 284.25pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>2</sub> = 4<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>2</sub> = 100<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e<sub>2</sub> = 1.25<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 179.25pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = 450 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 179.25pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">orde kedua</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kondisi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dipenuhi</span><span class="longtext">:</span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-10 < 0 │ -10<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0│ = 400 > 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>│0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-40│<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">telah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">meningkatkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">laba</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">350-450</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dollar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">melalui</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diskriminasi</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Harga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lebih rendah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">elastisitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">permintaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang lebih besar</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Diskriminasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lebih lanjut</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">akan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menguntungkan jika</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mampu</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membagi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ke dalam</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sejumlah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">besar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kelompok</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dengan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">elastisitas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Deman</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berbeda</span><span class="longtext">.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">DISKRIMINASI<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>SEMPURNA</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Setiap</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">titik</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pada</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurva</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">permintaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">harga tunggal</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tertinggi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bahwa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bersedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membayar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jumlah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang sesuai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">output</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Beberapa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bersedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membayar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">lebih</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">daripada</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mengorbankan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">komoditi</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Mereka</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">gai</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">surplus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">lihat </span><span class="hps">Sec</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">3-7</span><span class="longtext">.) </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sistem</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">harga tunggal</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Untuk mempermudah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berasumsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bahwa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">efek</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendapatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nol</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sehingga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurva</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">permintaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">biasa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kompensasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bertepatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">lihat </span><span class="hps">Sec.2</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">5). </span><span class="hps">Surplus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kemudian</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sama dengan luas daerah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">di bawah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">de</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">gan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurva</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dikurangi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jumlah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">utamanya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membayar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">komoditi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">tersebut.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Perusahaan monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sempurna</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diskriminatif</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">mampu</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membagi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pasar</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ke</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sedemikian rupa sehingga</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">menjual</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">setiap</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">unit</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">berturut-turut</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">komoditas</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">jumlah maksimum</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">bersedia</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">membayar</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">ini</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">dengan demikian</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">ekstrak</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">surplus</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">semua</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">konsumen</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Total pendapatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">nya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">luas area di bawah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">kurva</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">permintaan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keuntungan</span><span class="longtext">nya </span><span class="hps">adalah<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pengaturan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">turunan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sehubungan dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keluaran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan nol</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">F</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">'</span></span><span class="atn"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q). </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dimaksimalkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menyamakan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">harga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">marjinal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">biaya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">marjinal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dalam istilah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">diagramatik</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">perusahaan monopoli</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sempurna</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">diskriminatif</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">beroperasi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">titik di</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kurva</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MC</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">memotong</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kurva</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">permintaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">nya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Kondisi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kedua</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">agar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">maximination</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">:</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1077"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:13.5pt;height:21pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image073.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=18 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image074.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1077"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><u>d<sup>2</sup>π<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></u>= F’(q) – C”(q) < 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 170.25pt 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dq<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mensyaratkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">bahwa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kemiringan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kurva</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MC</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">nya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">lebih besar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">daripada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kemiringan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kurva</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">permintaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">nya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Dengan asumsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">diskriminasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">sempurna</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">contoh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang diberikan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">oleh</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">7-10) dan </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="longtext">7-11), </span><span class="hps">keuntungannya adalah</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π = </span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-begin'></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span style='position:relative;
top:5.5pt;mso-text-raise:-5.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1078"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:151.5pt;height:18pt' equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image075.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=202 height=24
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image076.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1078"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -5.5pt; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1079" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:151.5pt;height:18pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image075.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="24" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image076.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1079" width="202" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">penetapan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">harga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">marjinal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sama</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MC</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">,</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">100 – 4q = 20<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q = 20<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = 750<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Sesuai dengan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π = R(q) – C(q) ≥ π<sup>0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-14)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dimana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">adalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">laba</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">diterima</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">minimum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<span class="hps">Fungsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendapatan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yhe</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">cekung</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Jika</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">fungsi biaya</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">cembung</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">fungsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">keuntungan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">cekung</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">analisis</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Kuhn</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="longtext">Tucker </span><span class="hps">berlaku</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">untuk</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">masalah</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">maksimisasi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">perusahaan monopoli</span><span class="longtext">. </span><span class="hps">Fungsi</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">Bahasa</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang tepat</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">adalah</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">L = R(q) + λ [R(q) – C(q) - π<sup>0</sup>]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Kuhn</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">-</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Tucker</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kondisi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span style='mso-element:
field-begin'></span><span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>QUOTE <span
style='position:relative;top:7.5pt;mso-text-raise:-7.5pt'><![if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1080" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:178.5pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image077.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]><![if !vml]><img width=238 height=28
src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image078.gif"
v:shapes="_x0000_i1080"><![endif]></span><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style='mso-element:field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1081" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:178.5pt;height:21pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image077.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image078.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1081" width="238" /></span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><span
style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q ≥0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1082" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:209.25pt;height:25.5pt'
equationxml="<"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image079.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="34" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image080.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1082" width="279" />λ ≥ 0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>λ = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Asumsikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">bahwa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan maksimum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang unik</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tidak terbatas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">di</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">output</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">'</span></span><span class="atn"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">)> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">"</span></span><span class="atn"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q)> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">≥ q*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">" </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0 </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">></span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">></span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-24) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tidak</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dapat dipenuhi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">masalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">maksimum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tidak memiliki</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">solusi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Solusi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">akan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0 ≤ π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">adalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">solusi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">maksimal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">karena</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">hanya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">output</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">memuaskan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-24). </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">>, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">akan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">meningkat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">laba</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menurun</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">bertambah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">melampaui</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*.</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dengan demikian</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">monopoli</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">itu</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">akan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">terus</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">meningkat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sampai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">baik</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mencapai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">maksimum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tak terbatas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q), </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">atau</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">2) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-24) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">adalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">puas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sebagai</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kesetaraan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang terjadi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keluaran</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang lebih rendah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1), </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">25/07) menyatakan </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">bahwa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">'</span></span><span class="atn"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">λ</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Jika</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(2)</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">terjadi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">singkat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">output</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1), </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">C</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">'</span></span><span class="atn"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q)> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">' </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q)> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">λ</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">λ</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">multiplier</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">memberikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tingkat di mana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan tersebut dapat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">diperluas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">per</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dolar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dikorbankan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Perhatikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kembali</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">contoh yang diberikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">oleh</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-10) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">97-11</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">). </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Asumsikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">bahwa</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">334</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π0</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">*</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">350</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">maksimum</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tak terbatas</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">adalah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">625</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">terjadi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">12,5</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">π</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">325</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">opsi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ini</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dapat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dikecualikan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">karena</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menghasilkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">terlalu rendah</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Persamaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-24) </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">adalah<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(100q – 4q<sup>2</sup>) – (50+20q) – 334<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Yang juga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dapat ditulis</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sebagai<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q<sup>2</sup> – 20q + 96 = 0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">persamaan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">kuadrat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">memiliki</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">akar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">8</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">12</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">jumlah pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">masing-masing</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">544</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">624</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dengan demikian,</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">monopoli</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang memaksimalkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">memproduksi</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">12</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">unit</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menjual</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">harga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">52</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mendapatkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">total pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sebesar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">624</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">334</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Sebaliknya</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">, </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">perusahaan monopoli</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sederhana</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menghasilkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">10</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">unit</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">ia</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">menjual</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">harga</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">60</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">untuk</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">mendapatkan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">total pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">atau</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">600</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">350</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7-25), </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">λ</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">=</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">0,25</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">. </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Pengusaha</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pengorbanan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pada</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">tingkat</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">marjinal</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">4</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dolar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">laba</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">per</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dolar</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dari</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">pendapatan</span></span><span class="longtext"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">.</span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Perusahaan monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">memaksimalkan</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">pendapatan</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">tidak seperti</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">monopoli</span><span class="longtext"> </span><span class="hps">yang sederhana</span><span class="longtext">, </span><span class="hps">mungkin</span><span class="longtext"> </span>setelah outputnya jika pajak Laba diperkenalkan. Mempertimbangkan kasus dimana outputnya ditentukan oleh persamaan (7-24) baik sebelum dan setelah pajak yg dikenankan. Asumsikan bahwa pajak, 0 < t < 1 , adalah sebagian kecil keuntungan konstan. Persamaan (7-24) menjadi <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(1 - t)[ R(q) – C(q) ] = π<sup>0</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-26)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Turunan total dari (7-26)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: center;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMathPara><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
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m:val="p"/></m:rPr>q</m:r></span></m:e></m:d><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>-</m:r></span><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-hansi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr> C(q)</m:r></span></m:num><m:den><m:d><m:dPr><span style='font-size:12.0pt;
mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:dPr><m:e><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr>1</m:r></span><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>-</m:r></span><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-hansi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>t</m:r></span></m:e></m:d><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr>[R</m:r></span><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>'</m:r></span><m:d><m:dPr><span
style='font-size:12.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:
12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:dPr><m:e><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr>q</m:r></span></m:e></m:d><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";mso-bidi-font-family:
"Times New Roman";mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>-</m:r></span><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-hansi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>C</m:r></span><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";
mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr>'</m:r></span><m:d><m:dPr><span style='font-size:
12.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:
"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:dPr><m:e><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr>q</m:r></span></m:e></m:d><span lang=IN
style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-hansi-font-family:
"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>]</m:r></span></m:den></m:f><span
lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Times New Roman"'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="p"/></m:rPr><span style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></m:r></span></m:oMath></m:oMathPara><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:154.5pt;height:30.75pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image081.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image082.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="206" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Karena nilai q yg memenuhi (7-26) lebih besar drpd q*, R’(q) – C’(q) adalah negative. Karena R(q) – C(q) dan 1-t adalah positif, dq/dt < 0 ; yaitu peningkatan tingkat keuntungan pajak mengurangi output pendapatan maksimum. Jika output untuk sebuah pendapatan maksimum tak terbatas, menghasilkan Laba setidaknya sama besar dengan tingkat yang dapat diterima minimum yang baik sebelum dan sesudah pengenaan pajak, perusahaan monopoli tidak akan mengubah output ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 189.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7 - 4 MONOPSONY<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Monopsoni mirip dengan monopoli dalam banyak hal. Pasar monopoli memiliki satu penjual dan banyak pembeli yang kompetitif. Pasar monopsoni memiliki satu pembeli dan banyak penjual yang kompetitif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>monopsoni tidak bias membeli jumlah input yang tidak terbatas dengan harga yang seragam; harga yang harus dibayar untuk setiap kuantitas yang dibeli ditentukan oleh kurva penawaran pasar untuk input. Kurva penawaran untuk sebagian input berslope positif, harga yang harus dibayar pasar monopsoni umumnya merupakan fungsi peningkatan kuantitas pembelian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Pertimbangan pertama kasus monopsoni yang menggunakan input tunggal, untuk produksi komoditi yang dijual di pasar persaingan sempurna. Sebuah contoh yang mungkin disediakan oleh produsen yang merupakan pembeli tunggal di pasar tenaga kerja lokal dan menjual output di pasar nasional atau internasional. Fungsi produksi output suatu negara sebagai dari kuantitas tenaga kerja (x) digunakan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q = h (x)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-27)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">fungsi pendapatan dan persamaan biaya, seperti sebelumnya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R = pq<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>C = rx<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">di mana <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r </i>adalah harga dari tenaga kerja. Namun, harga tenaga kerja sekarang menjadi fungsi penambahan dari jumlah yang dipekerjakan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r = g (x)</span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-28)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">di mana <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dr/dx </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>> 0. Biaya tambahan tenaga kerja adalah tingkat perubahan biaya sehubungan dengan kuantitas yang digunakan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:14.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:
"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dC</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:14.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dx</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:12.75pt;height:24pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image083.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image084.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="17" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= r + x g’ (x)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-29)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Karena<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> g’ (x) </i>> 0, biaya tambahan tenaga kerja melebihi harga untuk x > 0.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Keuntungan yang didapat dari monopsoni dapat dinyatakan sebagai fungsi dari jumlah tenaga kerja:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Π</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> = R - C = ph (x) – rx</span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-30)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Turunan dari (7-30) terhadap x sama dengan nol,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:14.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:
"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dπ</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:14.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dx</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -7.5pt; position: relative; top: 7.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:13.5pt;height:24pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image085.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image086.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="18" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= ph’ (x) – r – xg’ (x) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ph’ (x) = r + xg’ (x)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-31)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Kondisi pertama untuk memaksimalkan laba dengan syarat bahwa tenaga kerja digunakan sampai titik di mana nilai produk marjinal sama dengan biaya marjinal perusahaan. Kondisi kedua mensyaratkan bahwa laju perubahan nilai marjinal tenaga kerja kurang dari laju perubahan biaya marjinal:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1076"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:144.75pt;margin-top:16.2pt;width:18pt;height:0;z-index:251664896'
o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 21px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 26px; z-index: 251664896;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image087.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1076" width="26" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">d<sup>2</sup>π = ph” (x) – 2g’ (x) – xg’ (x) < 0<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dx<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ph” (x) < 2g’ (x) + xg” (x)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-32)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Output yang optimum dari monopsoni dan harga tenaga kerja ditentukan dengan mengerjakan (7-31) untuk x dan mengganti nilai di kondisi kedua ke (7-27) dan (7-28).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Memaksimalkan keuntungan pada monopsoni akan menggunakan unit <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x<sup>0</sup></i> tenaga kerja dengan tingkat upah <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r<sup>0</sup></i> dolar. Persamaan harga tenaga kerja dengan nilai produk marjinalnya, titik keseimbangan bagi pengusaha yang membeli tenaga kerja dalam pasar persaingan sempurna, akan menghasilkan kerja dengan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x<sup>(1</sup></i><sup>)</sup> unit tenaga kerja dengan tingkat upah <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">r<sup>(1)</sup></i>. Pada monopsoni tenaga kerja yang digunakan dalam jumlah yang lebih kecil pada tingkat upah yang lebih rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jika produksi monopsoni dan fungsi penawaran tenaga kerja adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q = 15 x<sup>2</sup> – 0,2 x<sup>3</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r = 144 +23,4 x<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dan dia menjual output di pasar persaingan sempurna dengan harga 3 dolar, fungsi pendapatan totalnya dan persamaan biaya adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">R = 45 x<sup>2</sup> – 0,6 x<sup>3</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>C = 144 x + 23,4 x<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Nilai marjinal produk tenaga kerja sama dengan biaya marjinal,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">90 x – 1,8 x<sup>2</sup> = 144 + 46,8 x<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1080" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0;
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flip:y;z-index:251668992' o:connectortype="straight" strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 160px; left: 0px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 21px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 99px; z-index: 251668992;"><img height="160" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image088.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1080" width="99" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1077"
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style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:30.75pt;
margin-top:18pt;width:116.25pt;height:135pt;z-index:251667968' coordsize="2325,2587"
path="m,2587c399,1585,798,584,1185,292,1572,,1948,416,2325,832e" filled="f"
strokeweight="1.5pt"> <v:path arrowok="t"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 182px; left: 0px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 23px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 158px; z-index: 251667968;"><img height="182" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image090.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1079" width="158" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>$<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-size:12.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:
"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dC</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dx</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -7.0pt; position: relative; top: 7.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:20.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image091.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image092.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="15" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1084"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:30.75pt;margin-top:22.05pt;
width:105.75pt;height:0;flip:x;z-index:251673088' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 28px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 143px; z-index: 251673088;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image093.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1084" width="143" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1082"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:94.5pt;margin-top:2.55pt;
width:0;height:122.25pt;z-index:251671040' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 165px; margin-left: 125px; margin-top: 2px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251671040;"><img height="165" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image094.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1082" width="2" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1083"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:136.5pt;margin-top:22.05pt;
width:0;height:102.75pt;z-index:251672064' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 139px; margin-left: 181px; margin-top: 28px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251672064;"><img height="139" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image095.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1083" width="2" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1081"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:30.75pt;margin-top:12.3pt;
width:116.25pt;height:96pt;flip:y;z-index:251670016' o:connectortype="straight"
strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 131px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 15px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 157px; z-index: 251670016;"><img height="131" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image096.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1081" width="157" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r<sup>(1)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>g (x)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">p</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-size:12.0pt;mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:
normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dq</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>dx</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -7.0pt; position: relative; top: 7.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:10.5pt;height:20.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image097.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="27" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image098.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="14" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1085" type="#_x0000_t32"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:30.75pt;margin-top:2.55pt;width:63.75pt;
height:1.5pt;flip:x;z-index:251674112' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 4px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 2px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 87px; z-index: 251674112;"><img height="4" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image099.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1085" width="87" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r<sup>0</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1078"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:30.75pt;margin-top:1.1pt;
width:150.75pt;height:0;z-index:251666944' o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 40px; margin-top: 0px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 203px; z-index: 251666944;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image100.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1078" width="203" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>x<sup>0</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>x<sup>(1)</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>x <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">yang menghasilkan persamaan kuadrat:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">1,8 x<sup>2</sup> – 43.2 x + 144 = 0<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dengan akar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> = 4 dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> = 20. Kondisi orde kedua<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">90 – 3,6 x < 46,8<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">dipenuhi untuk <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> = 20. Solusi <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> = 4 adalah posisi hasil minimum. Dengan mengganti <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">x</i> = 20 ke dalam fungsi yang sesuai,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">q = 4400<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r = 612<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = 960<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jika monopsoni juga merupakan monopoli dalam pasar output, harga yang dia terima adalah fungsi kuantitas dari yang ia jual:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">P = F(q)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Keuntungan yang ia dapatkan dinyatakan sebagai fungsi dari kuantitas tenaga kerja yang ia pekerjakan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Π</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> = pq – rx = F [h (x)] h(x) – rx<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">atau lebih sederhana,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = R(x) – C(x)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-33)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Di mana pendapatan total dan biaya total yang dinyatakan sebagai fungsi dari kuantitas tenaga kerja yang dipekerjakan. Turuanan dari (7-33) sama dengan nol menghasilkan kondisi orde pertama bahwa tingkat kenaikan pendapatan dari kerja dengan unit lain tenaga kerja (pendapatan marjinal produk dari tenaga kerja) harus sama dengan biaya marjinal perusahaan. Kondisi orde kedua mensyaratkan bahwa pendapatan marjinal produk tenaga kerja meningkat lebih cepat dibandingkan biaya marjinal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">7 – 5 PERSAINGAN MONOPOLISTIK<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Persaingan monopolistic mirip dengan persaingan sempurna dalam jumlah yang cukup besar sehingga aksi penjual yang bersifat individu tidak mempunyai pengaruh yang jelas terhadap pesaingnya. Hal ini mirip dengan monopoli di masing-masing penjual yang memiliki kurva permintaan yang negatif untuk produk yang berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Dengan asumsi kurva permintaan linear, harga yang diterima oleh masing-masing penjual merupakan fungsi dari jumlah yang dijual oleh masing-masing perusahaan n dalam industri:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>k</sub> = A<sub>k</sub> – a<sub>k</sub>q<sub>k</sub> – </span></i><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:nary><m:naryPr><m:chr
m:val="∑"/><m:limLoc m:val="undOvr"/><span style='font-size:12.0pt;
mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:naryPr><m:sub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>i</m:r><m:r>=1</m:r></span></i></m:sub><m:sup><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>n</m:r></span></i></m:sup><m:e><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>bki</m:r><m:r> </m:r><m:r>qi</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:nary></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:55.5pt;height:14.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image101.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="19" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image102.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="74" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>k = 1,…,n<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-34)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sup><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i ≠ k<o:p></o:p></span></sup></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">di mana <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dp<sub>k</sub>/dq<sub>i</sub> = - b<sub>ki</sub></i> adalah negatif, tapi dengan angka kecil. Untuk memudahkan eksposisi, misalkan bahwa semua perusahaan memiliki permintaan yang identik dan fungsi biaya, yaitu; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">b<sub>ki</sub> = b </i>untuk semua <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k</i> dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">i</i> kecuali <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k = i, a<sub>k</sub> = a, A<sub>k</sub> = A</i>, dan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C<sub>k</sub> (q<sub>k</sub>) = C (q<sub>k</sub>)</i> untuk semua <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k</i>. Dengan asumsi harga awal sama untuk semua perusahaan, industri dapat digambarkan dalam hal tindakan perusahaan “perwakilan”. Fungsi pendapatan dan biaya semua perusahaan dan perilaku memaksimalkan mereka bersifat identik, meskipun produk mereka dibedakan di mata konsumen. Kurva permintaan yang dihadapai perusahaan adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>k</sub> = A – aq<sub>k</sub> –b </span></i><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:nary><m:naryPr><m:chr
m:val="∑"/><m:limLoc m:val="undOvr"/><span style='font-size:12.0pt;
mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:naryPr><m:sub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>i</m:r><m:r>=1</m:r></span></i></m:sub><m:sup><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>n</m:r></span></i></m:sup><m:e><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r> </m:r><m:r>qi</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:nary></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:38.25pt;height:14.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image103.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="19" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image104.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="51" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-35)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sup><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i ≠ k<o:p></o:p></span></sup></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">keuntungan dari perusahaan perwakilan adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>π = q<sub>k</sub> (A – aq<sub>k</sub> – b </span></i><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:nary><m:naryPr><m:chr
m:val="∑"/><m:limLoc m:val="undOvr"/><span style='font-size:12.0pt;
mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:naryPr><m:sub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>i</m:r><m:r>=1</m:r></span></i></m:sub><m:sup><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>n</m:r></span></i></m:sup><m:e><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>qi</m:r><m:r>)</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:nary></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:40.5pt;height:14.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image105.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="19" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image106.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="54" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>– C (q<sub>k</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-36)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sup><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i ≠ k<o:p></o:p></span></sup></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">MR sama dengan MC dengan asumsi bahwa tingkat output pesaingnya tidak berubah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A – 2 aqk – b </span></i><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:nary><m:naryPr><m:chr
m:val="∑"/><m:limLoc m:val="undOvr"/><span style='font-size:12.0pt;
mso-ansi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:naryPr><m:sub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>i</m:r><m:r>-</m:r><m:r>k</m:r></span></i></m:sub><m:sup><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>n</m:r></span></i></m:sup><m:e><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span lang=IN style='font-size:12.0pt;
line-height:150%;font-family:"Cambria Math","serif"'><m:r>qi</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:nary></m:oMath><![endif]--><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-text-raise: -3.0pt; position: relative; top: 3.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:36pt;height:14.25pt'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\Client6\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image107.png"
o:title="" chromakey="white"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><img height="19" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image108.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="48" /></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= C’ (qk) </span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(7-37)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sup><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>i ≠ k<o:p></o:p></span></sup></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Kondisi kedua mensyaratkan bahwa C nya akan meningkat lebih cepat dari pada MR nya. Tingkat output<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yang optimal untuk perusahaan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k </i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>tergantung pada tingkat agregat output dari competitor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Perusahaan perwakilan tidak akan bergerak sepanjang kurva permintaan (7-35) dengan asumsi bahwa tingkat output dari perusahaan lain tetap atau tidak berubah. Kurva permintaan yang efektif adalah dengan mensubstitusikan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q<sub>k</sub> = q<sub>i</sub> </i>ke (7-35). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>k</sub> = A – [a + (n – 1) b] q<sub>k</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-38)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Peningkatan 1 persen tingkat output oleh suatu pesaing dapat menyebabkan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p<sub>k</sub></i> turun sebesar 0,02 persen, tetapi 1 persen peningkatan simultan pada bagian dari 1000 perusahaan dapat menurunkan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p<sub>k</sub></i> sebesar 20 persen atau lebih. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Perusahaan perwakilan memulai dari beberapa kombinasi kuantitas harga yang menghadapi dua kurva permintaan yang terpisah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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id="_x0000_s1090" type="#_x0000_t19" style='position:absolute;margin-left:43.5pt;
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strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 119px; margin-left: 56px; margin-top: 12px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 67px; z-index: 251679232;"><img height="119" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image122.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1090" width="67" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MC<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>AC<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MC<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>AC<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 180.75pt 383.25pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>D<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>D<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 122.25pt 346.5pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D’<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>q<sub>k</sub><sup>0</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>k</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>k</sub><sup>0</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>k<o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(a)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(b)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Dalam gambar 7-5 a, DD adalah kurva permintaan untuk variasi tingkat outputnya, dan D’D’ kurva untuk variasi identik dari tingkat output dari semua perusahaan dalam industri. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Keseimbangan industri ketika MR sama dengan MC untuk semua perusahaan. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan bahwa asumsi simetri menjamin bahwa (7-37) akan menghasilkan tingkat output yang sama untuk semua perusahaan <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">n. </i>Oleh karena itu, solusinya dapat diperoleh dengan mengganti <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q<sub>k </sub>=q<sub>i</sub> </i>dalam (7-37)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A – [2a + (n – 1)b] q<sub>k</sub> = C’ (q<sub>k</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-39)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Rumusan terakhir hanya melibatkan satu persamaan dan satu variabel. Keuntungan maksimum dan kombinasi kuantitas harga yang optimal adalah sama untuk semua perusahaan. Keseimbangan jangka pendek disajikan pada gambar 7-5 b. MR sama dengan MC, dan DD memotong D’D’ pada kombinasi ekuilibrium kuantitas harga.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 12.0pt; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Masuk dan keluar secara gratis mendorong keuntungan bersih menjadi nol dalam industri persaingan sempurna dan dapat memiliki efek yang sama dalam persaingan monopolistik. Keuntungan dari perusahaan perwakilan dapat dinyatakan sebagai fungsi dari output dan jumlah perusahaan dalam industri jika <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">q<sub>k</sub> = q<sub>i </sub></i>dapat digantikan dalam (7-36)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Π</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sub><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">k</span></sub></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> = Aq<sub>k</sub> – [a + (n – 1)b] q<sub>k</sub><sup>2</sup> – C (q<sub>k</sub>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">(7-40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">Π</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><sub><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">k</span></sub></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"> </span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;">sama dengan nol, (7-39) dan (7-40) adalah system dari dua persamaan yang memberikan nilai ekuilibrium jangka panjang untuk tingkat output dari perusahaan perwakilan dan beberapa perusahaan lain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Posisi keseimbangan jangka panjang dari perusahaan perwakilan terlihat pada gambar 7-6. Perusahaan baru akan tertarik untuk memasuki industri dengan keuntungan bersih dari perusahaan perwakilan lebih besar dari nol. Karena meningkatnya jumlah perusahaan, perusahaan perwakilan dapat menjual output yang lebih kecil pada suatu harga tertentu, yaitu DD dan D’D’ akan bergeser ke kiri. Keseimbangan jangka panjang akan dicapai ketika MR = MC, DD bersinggungan dengan kurva biaya rata-rata menunjukkan bahwa total pendapatan sama dengan biaya total dan karena itu laba sama dengan nol, dan titik singgung dipotong oleh D’D’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; tab-stops: 54.75pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
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z-index:251694592' o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; left: 0px; margin-left: 52px; margin-top: 188px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 202px; z-index: 251694592;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image127.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1105" width="202" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1104"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
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o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 183px; left: 0px; margin-left: 50px; margin-top: 7px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 4px; z-index: 251693568;"><img height="183" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image128.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1104" width="4" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>p<sub>k</sub><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1107" style='position:absolute;
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style='position:absolute;margin-left:62.25pt;margin-top:18.95pt;width:74.25pt;
height:83pt;z-index:251695616' coordsize="1380,1660" path="m,1230v200,215,400,430,630,225c860,1250,1120,625,1380,e"
filled="f" strokeweight="1.5pt"> <v:path arrowok="t"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 113px; margin-left: 82px; margin-top: 24px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 101px; z-index: 251695616;"><img height="113" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image130.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1106" width="101" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MC<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1109" type="#_x0000_t32"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:79.5pt;margin-top:8.8pt;width:44.25pt;
height:60pt;z-index:251698688' o:connectortype="straight" strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 83px; margin-left: 105px; margin-top: 10px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 61px; z-index: 251698688;"><img height="83" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image131.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1109" width="61" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1108"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:46.5pt;margin-top:19.3pt;
width:123.75pt;height:32.25pt;z-index:251697664' o:connectortype="straight"
strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="height: 46px; margin-left: 61px; margin-top: 24px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 167px; z-index: 251697664;"><img height="46" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image132.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1108" width="167" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>AC<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1110" type="#_x0000_t32"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:46.5pt;margin-top:.2pt;width:77.25pt;
height:60pt;z-index:251699712' o:connectortype="straight" strokeweight="1.5pt"/><![endif]--><span style="mso-ignore: vglayout; position: relative; z-index: 251699712;"><span style="height: 83px; left: 61px; position: absolute; top: -1px; width: 105px;"><img height="83" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image133.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1110" width="105" /></span></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1112" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:96.75pt;
margin-top:5.45pt;width:0;height:63.75pt;z-index:251701760' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 87px; margin-left: 128px; margin-top: 6px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 2px; z-index: 251701760;"><img height="87" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image134.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1112" width="2" /></span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1111"
type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;margin-left:38.25pt;margin-top:5.45pt;
width:58.5pt;height:0;flip:x;z-index:251700736' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><span style="height: 2px; margin-left: 50px; margin-top: 6px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 80px; z-index: 251700736;"><img height="2" src="file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Client6/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image135.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1111" width="80" /></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>P<sub>k</sub><sup>0</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>MR<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sub>k</sub><sup>0</sup><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>q<sup>k</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Titik keseimbangan jangka panjang bagi perusahaan perwakilan ada di sebelah kiri dari titik minimum pada kurva total biaya rata-rata. Harga biaya rata-rata sama, seperti yang berlaku bagi perusahaan perwakilan dalam persaingan sempurna, tapi harga tidak sama dengan MC. Berbeda dengan hasil persaingan sempurna, perusahaan produsen perwakilan yaitu output yang lebih kecil dengan biaya total rata-rata yang lebih besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-7148072913385820142014-02-16T21:24:00.000+07:002014-02-16T21:41:17.285+07:00Organisasi Industri (Pendahuluan)<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">RUANG LINGKUP STUDI</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">ALIRAN UTAMA STUDI</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">HUBUNGAN S-C-P</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">RUANG LINGKUP STUDI</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Topik
Utama Ekonomi Industri </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perilaku
Perusahaan-perusahaan dalam Industri </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Yang
dipelajari dalam Ekonomi Industri </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">(<i>Unsur Mikro</i>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ekonomi Industri mempelajari tentang bagaimana
kebijakan perusahaan menghadapi para pesaing dan pelanggannya (Harga,
Advertensi, Penelitian dan Pengembangan)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">(<i>Unsur Makro</i>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ekonomi Industri juga mempelajari tentang kebijakan
publik yang berkaitan dengan maksimalisasi kesejahteraan masyarakat (welfare)
dan hubungan perusahaan dengan pemerintah dan bisnis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Organisasi Industri berkaitan dengan kebijakan
pemerintah yang bertujuan mencapai efisiensi tingkat perusahaan industri dan
efisiensi ekonomi nasional. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Pentingnya Ekonomi dan
Organisasi Industri </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">(Hasibuan, 1993)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Struktur
Pasar makin terkonsentrasi </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-char-type: symbol; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-symbol-font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span lang="EN-US"> prakteknya
merugikan konsumen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->K<span lang="EN-US">onsentrasi
makin tinggi mengurangi persaingan antar perusahaan
dan inefisiensi perilaku perusahaan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->K<span lang="EN-US">onsentrasi
makin tinggi menyebabkan konsentrasi kekayaan
dan melemahkan usaha pemerataan seperti pendapatan,
kesempatan kerja dan berusaha.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]-->I<span lang="EN-US">ntervensi
pemerintah meningkat sehubungan munculnya
masalah akibat struktur yang
makin terkonsentrasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Struktur,
Perilaku dan Kinerja Industri mempelajari dan
memecahkan masalah apa yang akan diproduksi, bagaimana
dan untuk siapa diproduksi. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Konsep Dasar</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Kenyataan
atau Fakta dalam Ilmu Ekonomi :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Adanya
persaingan antar perusahaan di setiap pasar sehingga
memperoleh dan memanfaatkan pangsa pasar untuk
memaksimalkan laba.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Terjadi
persaingan yang sehat, perusahaan berusaha efisien,
menetapkan harga rendah dan melakukan inovasi
untuk memperkuat dan memperbesar
pangsa pasar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Skala
ekonomi yang besar dan inovasi dapat dimanfaatkan untuk membiayai monopoli.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perusahaan
yang memiliki pangsa pasar yang besar
akan memperoleh keuntungan lebih
dengan menentukan harga diatas
biaya dan membatasi jumlah produk. Kekuatan monopoli
menimbulkan kerugian sosial berupa inefisiensi,
terhambat inovasi, pendapatan dan kekayaan
tidak merata. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri ---
Pasar --- Strategi </b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri :</b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Semua
kegiatan manusia yang bersifat produktif untuk memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya
berupa barang dan jasa dengan mentransformasikan faktor-faktor produksi untuk
mendapatkan <i>value added </i>yang lebih tinggi. (Ilmu pengetahuan dan
teknologi).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri Primer</b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Industri
yang hasil produknya langsung dihasilkan dari alam tanpa ada pengolahan
lanjutan. Ex : Hasil pertanian, hutan, kebun, peternakan dan pertambangan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri Sekunder (manufaktur)</b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Industri
yang mengolah lebih lanjut hasil industri primer menjadi barang jadi atau
produk siap pakai. Ex :pakaian, perabotan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri Tersier </b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Industri
yang menunjang kegiatan industri primer maupun manufaktur. Ex : industri
transportasi, perdagangan, listrik, jasa dan pemerintahan serta militer atau
keamanan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <b>Industri : </b></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> 1. Kumpulan perusahaan dengan output
yang sama </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> 2. Kumpulan perusahaan dengan input
yang sama </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> 3. Kumpulan perusahaan dengan
Keterkaitan input - output</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"> Pasar </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">-
Media bertemunya penjual dan
pembeli baik secara langsung maupun
tidak langsung.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
-
Kumpulan penjual dan pembeli yang mempertukarkan
atau memperjualbelikan barang
yang saling subtitusi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Kriteria Pendefinisian
Pasar </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Cakupan
Produk </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Elastisitas permintaan, elastisitas
silang permintaan,</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">keputusan partisipan, jumlah partisipan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Cakupan
Geografis </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Daerah Pembeli dan Daerah Penjual </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Strategi </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Merupakan suatu aktifitas yang diharapkan akan
memberikan hasil terbaik bagi si pelaku </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Fokus Studi </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">B</span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -18pt;">agaimana
perilaku perusahaan dalam menghadapi pesaing dan konsumennya dalam suatu
industri dan pasar </span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Bagaimana
pengaruh regulasi terhadap kondisi pasar</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="text-indent: -18pt;">Pasar
Persaingan tidak sempurna (Oligopoli) </span></li>
</ul>
<!--[if !supportLists]--><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">ALIRAN UTAMA STUDI</span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sasaran </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Untuk menjaga tingkat Persaingan
pasar yang sehat </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">S-C-P
School (Aliran Struktur – Perilaku – Kinerja) </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perlu campur tangan pemerintah </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 108.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level3 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->-<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Chicago
School</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";">o<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tidak perlu campur tangan pemerintah
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><i><span lang="EN-US">Struktur</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US"> --- Perilaku ---
Kinerja </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> <i>Paradigma
Struktur – Perilaku – Kinerja </i>meliputi pandangan bahwa kinerja industri
tergantung pada perilaku para penjual dan para pembeli dalam struktur industri
yang dihadapi. Sedangkan struktur industri ditentukan oleh kondisi-kondisi
dasar dilihat dari sisi permintaan dan penawaran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Struktur </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">U</span></b><span lang="EN-US">nsur-unsur
utama dari struktur pasar dijelaskan dengan membedakan pasar dilihat dari
berbagai kondisi (<i>Sheperd, 1985; Martin, 1989 dan Carlton, 1990</i>).</span><b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jumlah
dan besarnya penyebaran penjual.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jumlah
dan besarnya penyebaran pembeli.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Diferensiasi
produk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kondisi
masuk.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->5.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Peraturan/perundang-undangan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b> <span lang="EN-US">Struktur <i>--- Perilaku</i> ---
Kinerja… </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Perilaku </span></i><span lang="EN-US">perusahaan akan menarik hanya ketika persaingan
menjadi tidak sempurna.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Perilaku </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tindakan-tindakan yang dilakukan
perusahaan pada persaingan tidak sempurna :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"> Kolusi adalah beberapa perusahaan
independen berkoordinasi dalam tindakannya. Ex : Kartel </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"> Strategi perilaku pada beberapa jenis pasar
seperti keputusan tentang
tingkat harga dan jumlah produksi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"> Advertensi dan penelitian/pengembangan (R
& D) berkaitan dengan
investasi dan bentuk atau model pemasaran
dan produk. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Struktur --- Perilaku <i>--- Kinerja…</i> </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Kinerja </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"> Banyak
aspek yang berkaitan dengan kinerja. Perlu diberi batasan kriteria seperti
apakah kinerja yang baik. Beberapa aspek pokok :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Efisiensi
pengalokasian sumber daya </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->a.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Efisiensi
Internal</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 90.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->b.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Alokasi
yang efisien </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kemajuan
Teknologi dalam bentuk inovasi </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Keseimbangan
dalam distribusi </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]-->4.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dimensi
lainnya seperti nilai-nilai sosial dan budaya seperti kebebasan individu, aman
dari bahaya </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-6015580971809647702014-02-16T21:01:00.002+07:002014-02-16T21:03:58.713+07:00Tipe Pasar, Kondisi, beserta Contoh<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 5.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 480; width: 576px;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">NO<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">TIPE PASAR<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">KONDISI UTAMA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">CONTOH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Monopoli Murni<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Suatu Perusahaan memiliki 100
persen dari pangsa pasar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">PLN, TELKOM, PAM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Perusahaan yang Dominan (Dominant
Firm)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Suatu perusahaan yang memiliki
50-100 persen dari pangsa pasar tanpa pesaing yang kuat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Surat</span></st1:place></st1:city><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> Kabar Lokal/Nasional, Microsoft<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Oligopoli Ketat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Penggabungan 4 perusahaan
terkemuka yang memiliki pangsa pasar 60-100 persen. Kesepakatan diantara
mereka untuk menetapkan harga relative mudah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Perbankan local, siaran TV, semen, rokok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Oligopoli longgar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Penggabungan 4 perusahaan
terkemuka yang memiliki 40 persen atau kurang dari pangsa pasar, kesepakatan
diantara mereka untuk menetapkan harga sebenarnya tidak mungkin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Perabot, majalah, obat-obatan,
mesin-mesin kecil<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Persaingan Monopolistik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Banyak pesaing yang efektif, tidak
satupun yang memiliki lebih dari 10 persen pangsa pasar <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pedagang eceran, pakaian<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 45.0pt;" valign="top" width="60"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 97.2pt;" valign="top" width="130"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Persaingan Murni<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 147.6pt;" valign="top" width="197"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Lebih dari 50 pesaing yang mana
tidak satu pun yang memiliki pangsa pasar yang berarti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 142.2pt;" valign="top" width="190"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Sapi, unggas, hasil alam<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
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Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-38551690210881649722014-02-16T03:20:00.002+07:002014-02-16T03:20:22.892+07:00Housing Buble<div class="MsoNormal">
Gelembung real estat atau gelembung properti (atau perumahan
gelembung untuk pasar perumahan) adalah jenis gelembung ekonomi yang terjadi
secara berkala di lokal atau global pasar real estat. Hal ini ditandai dengan
peningkatan pesat dalam penilaian real properti seperti perumahan sampai mereka
mencapai tingkat yang tidak relatif terhadap pendapatan dan elemen ekonomi lainnya,
diikuti dengan tingkat harga selama
beberapa tahun.<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps"><u>Identifikasi</u></span><span class="shorttext"><u> </u></span><span class="hps"><u>dan</u></span><span class="shorttext"><u> </u></span><span class="hps"><u>pencegahan</u></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><br />
<br />
Dalam ekonomi mainstream, beberapa pihak berpendapat bahwa gelembung real
estate tidak dapat diidentifikasi karena mereka terjadi dan tidak dapat atau
tidak boleh dicegah, dengan pemerintah pusat dan kebijakan bank agak
membersihkan setelah ledakan gelembung.<br />
Lainnya, seperti ekonom Amerika Robert Shiller dan majalah Inggris The
Economist, berpendapat bahwa perumahan indikator pasar dapat digunakan untuk
mengidentifikasi gelembung real estate. Beberapa berpendapat lebih lanjut bahwa
pemerintah dan bank sentral dapat dan harus mengambil tindakan untuk mencegah
gelembung dari pembentukan, atau untuk mengempis gelembung yang ada.</span><u><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><br /></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><u>Makroekonomi</u></span><span class="shorttext"><u> </u></span><span class="hps"><u>signifikansi</u></span><u><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pandangan
ekonomi arus utama adalah bahwa gelembung ekonomi terutama Efek pertama
dorongan sementara di kekayaan, dan kedua redistribusi kekayaan. Ketika harga
naik, terdapat pengaruh positif kekayaan - pemilik properti merasa lebih kaya,
sehingga menghabiskan lebih, dan ketika harga turun, ada efek kekayaan negatif
- pemilik properti merasa miskin, dan karena itu menghabiskan kurang. Dikatakan
bahwa efek ini bisa dihaluskan oleh kebijakan moneter dan fiskal
counter-cyclical. Kedua, pengaruh utama pada pemilik yang membeli sebelum
gelembung terbentuk dan tidak menjual adalah nol - seluruh, mereka memiliki
properti. Sebaliknya, mereka yang membeli saat rendah dan menjual tinggi
keuntungan, sementara mereka yang membeli tinggi dan dijual rendah atau
dimiliki hingga jatuh harga uang hilang, meskipun ini akhirnya hanya
redistribusi kekayaan dan, ia berpendapat, signifikansi ekonomi kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Di beberapa
sekolah ekonomi heterodoks, khususnya ekonomi Austria dan ekonomi
pasca-Keynesian, gelembung real estat dilihat sebagai contoh gelembung kredit
(pejoratively, gelembung spekulatif), karena pemilik properti umumnya
menggunakan meminjam uang untuk membeli properti, dalam bentuk hipotek . Ini
kemudian berpendapat menyebabkan krisis keuangan dan karenanya ekonomi. Ini
adalah pertama berpendapat empiris - banyak gelembung real estate telah diikuti
oleh kemerosotan ekonomi, dan dikatakan bahwa ada hubungan sebab-akibat antara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Teori
siklus bisnis Austria mengambil pandangan sisi penawaran, dengan alasan bahwa
gelembung real misalokasi sebenarnya penyebab sumber daya - terlalu banyak
rumah dan kantor yang dibangun, dan sumber daya terlalu banyak (bahan dan
tenaga kerja) yang terbuang dalam membangun bangunan yang tidak diperlukan.
Selanjutnya, ini mendistorsi basis industri, menghasilkan kelebihan
homebuilders yang kemudian harus melatih dan memperlengkapi kembali ketika
semburan gelembung, ini transisi antara menggunakan non-produktif dan sumber
daya produktif (dan malinvestment selama-lead up) menjadi penyebab proksimat
yang dihasilkan kemerosotan ekonomi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Fred
Foldvary, ekonom di Santa Clara University, telah disintesis teori
Austria-sekolah dari siklus dengan teori darat dari Henry George. proposisi-Nya
adalah bahwa teori ini geo-Austria sesuai dengan siklus 18-tahun real estat
sebagai ditemukan oleh ekonom real estat Homer Hoyt dan lain-lain [rujukan?].<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Teori
Post-Keynesian deflasi utang mengambil pandangan sisi permintaan, dengan alasan
bahwa pemilik properti tidak hanya merasa lebih kaya, tapi meminjam terhadap
kenaikan nilai harta mereka (sebagai melalui jalur kredit ekuitas rumah), atau
meminjam uang untuk berspekulasi di properti, membeli properti dengan uang yang
dipinjam dengan harapan bahwa ia akan naik nilai - pandangan terakhir dikaitkan
dengan Hyman Minsky dan gelar Hipotesis Instabilitas Keuangan. Ketika semburan
gelembung, nilai dari properti menurun tetapi, krusial, tingkat utang tidak.
Beban membayar atau default pada utang ini berpendapat untuk menekan permintaan
agregat dan menjadi penyebab terdekat dari kemerosotan ekonomi berikutnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="hps">Recent</span><span class="shorttext"> </span><span class="hps">gelembung</span><span class="shorttext"> </span><span class="hps">real
estate</span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Jatuhnya
gelembung harga aset Jepang dari tahun 1990 di telah sangat merusak ekonomi
Jepang dan kehidupan Jepang banyak yang telah melalui pengalaman tersebut, [1]
seperti juga benar dari kecelakaan pada tahun 2005 dari gelembung real estate
di China kota terbesar, Shanghai. [2] Tidak seperti crash pasar saham berikut
gelembung, sebuah real-estate "crash" biasanya merupakan proses yang
lebih lambat, karena pasar real estat kurang likuid dibandingkan dengan pasar
saham. Sektor-sektor lain seperti kantor, hotel dan ritel biasanya bergerak
seiring dengan pasar perumahan, yang dipengaruhi oleh banyak variabel yang sama
(pendapatan, suku bunga, dll) dan juga berbagi "efek kekayaan"
booming. [Riset asli?] Oleh karena itu artikel ini berfokus pada gelembung
perumahan dan sektor-sektor lain menyebutkan hanya ketika situasi mereka
berbeda dari perumahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada tahun
2007, gelembung real estate telah ada pada masa lalu atau secara luas diyakini
masih ada di banyak bagian dunia, [3] terutama di Amerika Serikat, Argentina,
[4] Inggris, Belanda, Italia, Australia, New Selandia, Irlandia, Spanyol,
Lebanon, Perancis, Polandia, [5] Afrika Selatan, Israel, Yunani, Bulgaria,
Kroasia, [6] Norwegia, Singapura, Korea Selatan, Swedia, negara-negara Baltik,
India, Rumania, Rusia, Ukraina dan China [7] Kemudian. US Federal Reserve Alan
Greenspan mengatakan dalam pertengahan tahun 2005 yang "minimal, ada
'buih' sedikit (di pasar perumahan AS) ... sulit untuk tidak melihat bahwa ada
banyak gelembung setempat. "[8] majalah The Economist, menulis pada saat
yang sama, melangkah lebih jauh, mengatakan" kenaikan harga rumah di
seluruh dunia adalah gelembung terbesar dalam sejarah ". [9] gelembung
real estat yang selalu diikuti dengan penurunan harga yang parah (juga dikenal
sebagai harga rumah kecelakaan) yang dapat mengakibatkan banyak pemilik
memegang ekuitas negatif (hutang hipotek lebih tinggi dari nilai saat
properti). [rujukan?] nilai properti komersial tetap sekitar 35% di bawah-2007
pertengahan puncak mereka di Inggris. [10] Sebagai hasilnya, bank telah menjadi
kurang bersedia untuk menyimpan sejumlah besar hutang properti didukung,
kemungkinan isu utama dalam mempengaruhi pemulihan di seluruh dunia dalam waktu
dekat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The US
Housing “bubble” in the Early 21st Century<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Harga rata
rata (indeks) rumah di US meningkat sejak 1975 (lihat lampiran 1). Pada
periode 1996-awal 2006 tingkat
pertumbuhan mencapai 12% p.a. Ini disebabkan kebijakan Federal Reserve’s yang
menetapkan tingkat suku bunga yang rendah setelah resesi tahun 2001.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Tingkat
suku bunga pinjaman tetap berada di 1 % pada Juli 2003 – Juli 2004 , walaupun
harga komoditas sudah naik. Akhirnya pada September 2006 tingkat suku bunga
naik menjadi 5,25%, terkait inflasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Isu
mengenai “house price” sudah mulai dikemukakan oleh beberapa ekonom, yaitu
sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a. Dean Baker (2004) : Harga rumah seperti
“bubble ready to burst” dan kerugiannya
yang akan terjadi sekitar 2-3 triliun USD.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">b. Para developer menganggap “housing bubble”
hal yang wajar. Menurut pengamatan ekonom peningkatan harga rumah hanya
terkonsentrasi di beberapa area tertentu yang memiliki “zoning restriction”.
Namun kenyataan tidak seperti itu, harga tetap naik dan tidak ada yang bisa
meredam kenaikan harga ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">c. Chris Mayer
: ‘Superstar Cities’ industri
konstruksi tumbuh dimana mana, dan rumah rumah baru dikuasai investor. Menurut
Loan Performance Inc. di tahun 2004, 12% mortgage di daerah Phoenix dikuasai
investor, ini meningkat dibanding tahun 2000 yang hanya 5,8%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Home
Finance Before the 1990’s<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a. 30 year mortgage :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Cicilan dan bunga yang fixed selama
30 tahun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Bisa dilunasi tanpa dikenakan
pinalti<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Jika sewaktu-waktu terjadi penurunan
suku bunga pinjaman, maka bisa dilakukan refinancing terhadap rumah tersebut
dengan mengikuti tingkat suku bunga baru yang lebih rendah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">b. HOLC
(Home Owner Loan Corporation) muncul saat Great Depression saat pada
household default. Yang di tawarkan HOLC adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Lender : HOLC akan bertanggung jawab
atas claim kerugian, dengan syarat bank melakukan review atas kerugian assets
lender.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Borrower : HOLC menawarkan new
‘Self-amortizing’ mortgage atas penilaian ulang atas rumah mereka.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Awal tahun
1980 : short interest rate meningkat, yields on mortgage assets turun
mengakibatkan kegagalan setengah dari 32,234 S&L’s yang exist di tahun
1986. Karena pemerintah menjamin deposan dari S&L, maka harus dibentuk
suatu institusi baru untuk menyelesaikan Asset S&L yang “gagal”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Krisis
S&L mengakibatkan mortgage dibuat menjadi sekuritas oleh 2 GSE (Government
Sponsored Enterprise), yaitu Fannie Mae dan Freddie Mac.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">GSE membeli
dari mortgage originator, lalu dibuat dan dijual Mortgage Backed Securities
(MBS). Sebagai imbalan dari fee yang dibayarkan, GSE menjamin pokok dan bunga
pinjaman. Artinya GSE akan memiliki cukup banyak uang (pemerintah dapat
menolong jika GSE berada dalam kesulitan keuangan), resiko yang ada hanya
‘prepayment risk’ yang dihadapi holder atau pemegang dari MBS tersebut dimana
underlying mortgage akan dibayarkan sebelum jatuh tempo. Pemerintah menetapkan
jumlah pinjaman yang boleh diterima oleh GSE à tools-nya LTV (Loan to Value
Ratio) harus di bawah 80%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Bagi
peminjam yang memiliki latar belakang kredit yang bermasalah, mereka boleh
meminjam tetapi harus melalui lembaga-lembaga yang dijamin oleh FHA (Federal
Housing Administration).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Innovation
in Mortgages<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Pada tahun 1990, banyak
lembaga-lembaga keuangan baru bermunculan dan mulai memberikan pinjaman ke
peminjam yang tidak memenuhi kualifikasi dari prime mortgage. Daripada
meminjamkan secara langsung, perusahaan baru tersebut lebih memilih untuk
menggunakan jasa broker dengan memberikan imbalan berupa komisi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Pada tahun 2005, subprime
mortgage lenders meningkat dari 63 (1999) menjadi 209. Perbedaan prime dan
subprime sebenarnya tidak terlihat dan terbagi dengan jelas. Yang pasti
hanyalah pada subprime, tingkat bunga dan biaya yang dibebankan lebih besar.
Dengan banyaknya lembaga-lembaga yang baru ini, pertumbuhan mortgage dari 1% di
tahun 1993 menjadi 20% tahun 2006. Dan
bagian FHA turun dari 11% menjadi 1,9%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Pada tahun 2006: 29% KPR
memiliki bunga yang tinggi, banyak refinancing yang terjadi à di satu sisi meningkatkan hutang debitur
KPR, di sisi lain uang yang seharusnya digunakan untuk membayar pinjaman jadi
dapat digunakan untuk keperluan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Di tahun
2005, Countrywide Financial menjadi salah satu pemberi KPR yang terbesar,
Countrywide Financial membebankan bunga yang berbeda kepada debitur tergantung
dari 5C (Character, Capacity, Capital,
Collateral, Condition of Economic).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Sementara
kriteria credit score yang paling populer adalah FICO yang ditemukan oleh Fair
Isaac Corporationà score min 300, score max 850. Dikatakan populer karena
adanya korelasi yang kuat antara FICO scores dengan kegagalan pembayaran KPR
pada periode sebelum 1995.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Salah satu
tipe subprime yang populer adalah 2/28. Cirri-cirinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">ü interest fixed 2 tahun, sisanya floating
selama 28 tahun (tahun 2006 = 8,5%, dimana yang konvensional = 6,4%; kemudian
floatingnya LIBOR + 6,1%)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">ü ada pinalti untuk pre payment di 2 tahun
pertama tapi tanpa biaya lainnya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">ü dari sudut pandang broker tipe ini menarik
karena dapat dilakukan refinancing setelah 2 tahun à memungkinkan broker untuk
mendapatkan kembali fee dari refinancing yang dilakukan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">ü bagi borrower : jika pembayaran dilakukan
tepat waktu maka FICO score akan meningkat sehingga dapat dilakukan refinancing
dengan bunga yang lebih rendah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Sedangkan
untuk tipe prime adalah ARM (Adjustable Rate Mortagage), dengan cirri-ciri
tingkat suku bunga di atas tingkat suku bunga tipe 2/28, tapi di bawah tipe
konvensional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada
kenyataannya, banyak pendapat dari debitur tentang tipe 2/28 ini yang berbeda
dari apa yang ditawarkan sebelumnya à dikenakan pinalti, padahal pembayaran
sudah melebihi 2 tahun; bunga yang
dikenakan melambung tinggi; banyak broker yang lepas tangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Subprime
mortgage hanya meminta surat keterangan pendapatan sebagai syarat pengajuan
KPR, sementara data lainnya tidak perlu. Syarat ini berbeda jauh dari KPR
tradisional yang memerlukan banyak sekali data yang harus diserahkan calon
debitur kepada borrower. Hal ini menguntungkan pihak yang memiliki pendapatan
yang tidak pasti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Tipe
lainnya adalah option ARM à debitur berhak menentukan besarnya nominal
pembayaran pada saat awal KPR selama 6 bulan pertama (contoh: 0% pada 6 bulan
pertama)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Changes In
The Secondary Market for Mortgages<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada 1995
hanya terdapat 28% subprime loan di secondary market, namun di tahun 2005
terdapat 73 % mortgages yang dijual dengan suku bunga yang tinggi. Pada tahun
2005 dan 2006, dikeluarkan 500 billion MBS oleh GSE. GSE mendapat persaingan
dari private label di pasar MBS, dimana pada tahun 2005 private label sudah
mengeluarkan 1.2 trillion MBS, yang akhirnya pada tahun 2006 menguasai 57% MBS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">GSE adalah
pembeli utama MBS Private label, dan memiliki kombinasi portofolio sebesar 1.5
trillion (mortgages dan MBSs). GSE menyatakan mereka lebih tahan terhadap
resiko kredit karena adanya penetapan private mortgage insurance untuk pinjaman
dengan LTV > 80 % dan MBS private labelnya GSE mendapatkan rating yang
tinggi dari credit rating agency. Private Label MBS adalah obligasi special
yang mempercayakan seseorang yang
memiliki paket mortgages dan seseorang yang mendistribusikan bunga, pokok dan
pembaran lainnya dari peminjam ke dalam
berbagai macam tipe bond yang memiliki prioritas tertinggi dalam
pendistribusian dana. Rumus pengalokasian dana ke bond ini cukup rumit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Di bulan Mei
2005, sebagai contoh, Moody memberikan rating bond of trust yang di set up Morgan Stanley yang memiliki
sekumpulan subprime mortgages yang dikeluarkan oleh New Century. Moody
memberikan rating Aaa pada 8 bond tranched, yang mewakili 83% dari 1.4 billion
securities yang di keluarkan. 9 tranches tambahan diberikan rating antara Aa1
dan Baa3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Moody
menyatakan target collateral losses antara 4.5 % sampai 4.75% dari kesuluruhan
trust. Dan Moody sangat percaya pada Countrywide dan Homeq, untuk menangani
pelayanan mortgages, yaitu mengumpulkan pokok dan bunga, melakukan proses
foreclose termasuk biayanya dan sebagai penerima fee kesuluruhan mortgages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Walaupun
Moody’s, S&P dan Fitch memiliki kapasitas untuk menilai MBS, namun issuer
tidak selalu membeli rating dari
ketiganya karena alasan ‘not economical’.
Pada tahun 2000, Moody dinilai terlalu kaku bagi issuer dan memiliki
methodologies rating yang konservative, dan hanya me rating 39% dari MBS yang
di issue, sedangkan S&P sebagai
market leader me-rating 87 %. Setelah me
roll out new set of rating, Moody mendapatkan share 64% pada 2001.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Inovasi
lebih jauh terjadi di January 2006, saat Markit dan Konsorsium investasi
perbankan aktif di MBS market mengeluarkan satu set indeks ABX-HE (Home
Equity). Indeks ini mentrace harga kontrak OTC, yang mirip seperti asuransi
yang dibayar peminjam atas paket subprime MBS yang specific. Kontrak/perjanjian
ini mengharapkan penerimaan atas pembayaran tetap dan pengeluaran pembayaran
‘floating’ (Floating Payment). Floating Payment
akan bertambah jika Markit menentukan bahwa peminjam gagal atas
mortgagaes yang tergabung di MBS atau jika MBS di jaminkan. Standarisasi yang
dihasilkan dari indeks ini mempermudah institusi keuangan untuk menilai di
subprime market.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Fungsi
rating agency di pasar mortgage sekunder tidak hanya berasal dari rating MBS.
Banyak MBS yang menemukan cara sendiri ke institusi keuangan, dan agency rating
secara jelas berada dalam posisi ideal untuk merating hutang mereka. Menurut
Laporan Lehman Brothers, pecahan/turunan dari MBS security di tangani oleh entitas Collateral Debt
Obligation (CDO) pada tahun 2007. CDO yang legal di buat oleh Bank Investasi
dan terdaftar di “Tax Heaven” area.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Sangat umum
CDO menangani asset CDO lain nya, dan CDO juga aktif di pasar derivative.
Berdasarkan Indeks ABX-HE, CDO Merrill
Lynch (Norma) menjual asuransi atas kerugian Tranched MBS dengan rating BBB.
Fitch, S&P and Moody memberikan rating tranches tertinggi yaitu 75% atas
nilai Norma di tahun 2007. Magnetar membeli tranches ini dan melakukan hedging
dengan membeli MBS dengan rating tranches AAA.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">CDO
cenderung memiliki long term debt. Sebagai alternative, beberapa commercial
Bank menciptakan institusi yang bisa membeli MBS dari dana yang berasal dari
short term commercial paper. Dan rating agency di perlukan untuk menaikkan
rates. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Citibank
memperkenalkan Structure Investment Vehicle (SIV), yang juga bergantung pada
commercial paper, dan memerlukan rating. Namun sponsoring bank line creditnya
lebih kecil dan tidak jadi satu dengan
investor. Regulator memperbolehkan untuk
tidak mencatat SIV dari balance sheet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">The Rise in
Foreclosures<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada saat
peminjam tidak dapat membayar cicilannya pada periode tertentu, maka pihak yang
memberi pinjaman dapat berinisiatif untuk melakukan penyitaan. Kecuali peminjam
melakukan pembayaran yang cukup untuk kembali menjadi peminjam dengan melakukan
pembayaran yang lalu sekaligus biaya keterlambatan atau peminjam melakukan
perjanjian dengan yang meminjamkan dalam hal melakukan lelang. Peminjam dapat
diusir dari rumah yang bersangkutan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Berdasarkan
survey, keseluruhan rate jaminan penyitaan barang jatuh dari 1,23% pada Q2 2002
menjadi 1,08% di Q1 2005. Diatas periode
yang sama sebagian kecil dari pinjaman yang telah jatuh tempo dan belum dibayar
turun dari 4,77% menjadi 4,31%. Analisis ini membingungkan dimana harapan yang
ditimbulkan dalam pinjaman yang berisiko tinggi mendorong menjadi meningkat.
Satu penjelasan yang ditawarkan dalam penilaian harga rumah memberikan peminjam
untuk mengkaji ulang pinjaman yang tidak memberikan hasil. Penjelasan yang
berhubungan ketika peminjam memiliki beberapa saham di rumah mereka, mereka
memiliki persetujuan untuk menjual rumah mereka dengan membatalkan
kepemilikannya dan hasil penjualan tidak dilaporkan sebagai jenis penyitaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Penyitaan
dan pelanggaran meningkat selama tahun 2006 dan 2007. MBA melaporkan statistic
akibat dampak tersebut sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Tingkat
pelanggaran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Q4 2006 :
4,95%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Q3 2007 :
5,59%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Q4 2007 :
5,62%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Tingkat
penyitaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Q4 2006 :
1,19%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Q4 2007 :
2,04%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Perusahaan
RealtyTrac bergelut dengan bidang spesialisasi dalam membantu pembeli-pembeli
potensial untuk menemukan barang-barang hasil sitaan, mulai sejak munculnya
isu-isu bahwa akan meningkat penyitaan-penyitaan secara dramatis. Pada Desember
2007, MBA mengumumkan bahwa sementara jenis pinjaman prime hanya 0,79% terkena
kasus penyitaan pada Q3 tahun 2007, pinjaman subrime sebesar 6,89%. Pada tempo
yang sama, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston juga mempelajari bahwa sekitar 20%
pinjaman yang dibiayai dengan jenis subprime akan berakhir dengan proses
penyitaan. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penyitaan umumnya terjadi di lingkungan rumah dimana
harga rumah merosot lebih jauh, diperkirakan jika harga rumah lebih jatuh, maka
penyitaan akan meningkat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Keadaan
ekonomi dan permasalahan dari penyitaan barang jaminan sangatlah besar. Peminjam sering kali tercengang ketika
melihat hutang yang membengkak di proses penyitaan barang, sebagai pemberi
pinjaman memberikan biaya yang sangat besar ketika peminjam telat membayar
tagihan yang jatuh tempo. Kebanyakan peminjam kehilangan rumahnya dan hal itu
merupakan pukulan yang sangat besar bagi peminjam. Ada beberapa peminjam
menganggap hal ini sebagai kegagalan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Dalam masa
penyitaan, perbaikan rumah sering diabaikan, sehingga harga jual pasar untuk
rumah tersebut rendah. Kemarahan peminjam dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada
properti tersebut sebelum mereka diusir. Sejak pembeli dalam pelelangan barang
sitaan, mereka berani membayar properti tersebut seperti apa adanya (tidak
terlalu bagus). Sebagai hasilnya, bank-bank sering menawarkan barang-barang
sitaan mereka setelah penyitaan selesai. Berdasarkan catatan dari RealtyTrac,
bank-bank melakukan hal tersebut pada bulan Oktober dan November 2007 sebanyak
50.000 buah. Barang-barang sitaan ini kemudian mengendap dalam keadaan kosong,
dapat rusak dan mengundang kriminal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Kehancuran
menimpa komuniti-komuniti seperti Cleveland dan Detroit. Sebagian besar
kota-kota ini menolak untuk waktu tertentu dan naik turunnya penyitaan barang
mengalami perubahan di kalangan rakyat menengah kebawah, dapat meminjam paling
sedikit 1000 dollar. Kebanyakan group imigrant sangat terpengaruh, sepertinya
grup ini telah menerima ketidakproposionalan pinjaman. Secara Nasional penyitaan
sangatlah tinggi di daerah-daerah konstruksi seperti Florida dan California.
Dimana Stockton menunjukkan daerah tertinggi penyitaan barang di USA. Penyitaan
barang tidak hanya merugikan pemilik rumah sendiri tetapi juga merugikan
penyewa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Dengan memberikan
biaya substansial, mungkin dapat dibayangkan bahwa orang yang meminjamkan dan
peminjam mendapatkan pilihan alternative di dalam pengaturan. Kemungkinan
pertama adalah menjual rumah secara damai sebelum penyitaan dengan orang yang
meminjamkan dengan memberikan selisih nilai antara jumlah pada saat menjual dan
jumlah pinjaman sekarang. Atau dengan membiarkan si peminjam tetap tinggal di
dalam rumah tersebut dan dilakukan pengurangan pembayaran. Orang yang
meminjamkan sering mengklaim bahwa mereka melakukan negosiasi dengan peminjam,
tetapi juga tidak mengetahui bahwa
dengan meningkatnya volume penyitaan melebihi kapasitas negosiasi mereka.
Peminjam, juga sering frustasi karena tidak bertanggungjawabnya orang yang
meminjamkan. Sesungguhnya, jumlah peminjam tidak tahan untuk menipu dimana
mereka membayar orang untuk melakukan negosiasi ulang tentang kepemilikan
dengan orang yang meminjamkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Turmoil in
Global Financial Markets<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Perusahaan pertama yang menderita dari
peningkatan penyitaan barang jaminan adalah pihak yang menerbitkan mortgage.
Banyak dari mereka menggunakan shortterm fund untuk mengatasi kebutuhan
financial mereka dan menghadapi cash squeeze thn 2007, dimana rate untuk
pinjaman subprime jauh diatas jangkauan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Tekanan dari kreditor membuat New
Century (second largest suprime lender) menutup fasilitas peminjaman bulan
Maret 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Awal Agustus 2007, banyak pengamat
meratapi terjadinya credit crunch dan subprime crisis. Sektor perumahan melemah
dan mempengaruhi pertumbuhan ekonomi (juga terkait dengan inflasi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· European Central Bank (ECB) menentukan
target tingkat suku bunga dan menetapkan interest rate pada Juni 2007 sebesar
4%. Pada 8 Agustus, interest rate sempat mencapai 4,7% dan akhirnya ECB mengucurkan
dana $129 milyar dalam keadaan darurat. Disini dilihat mulai adanya keterlibatan bank central dalam menghadapi
masalah financial yang terkait dengan masalah US mortgage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Tidak dapat dielakkan bahwa tingkat
suku bunga dalam satu malam menembus batas, LIBOR membentuk suatu pola yang
aneh (lihat lampiran 7). Hal ini terkait dengan adanya kontradiksi dari
pemimpin Eropa yang mengklaim beberapa minggu sebelumnya, bahwa bank-bank di
Eropa terimbas dengan efek subprime mortgage di US.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Salah satu contoh bank yang menerima
akibat subprime mortgage adalah IKB, German bank, yang mayoritas sahamnya
dimiliki oleh bank pemerintah KfW. IKB membuat suatu off balance sheet yang
disebut Rhineland yang memasang taruhan cukup besar di US mortgage. Saat
Rhineland kesulitan untuk meningkatkan dana pada sekuritas-sekuritasnya,
Rhineland balik ke IKB yang juga kekurangan dana. Pada 3 Agustus, akhirnya
pemerintah German ikut campur untuk menyelamatkan banknya dengan menyuntikkan
dana ke KfW.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Masalah juga terjadi pada BNP Paribas. BNP
merupakan bank yang mempunyai asset utamanya tersebar di seluruh wilayah Eropa.
BNP mengumumkan bahwa mereka sedang tergantung pada pemenuhan janji dari 3
sumber pendanaan yang terkait dengan subprime mortgage di US.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Rating agencies akhirnya menurunkan
rating sebagian besar MBS dan CDO dan bank-bank besar seperti HSBC dan Citibank
membeli kembali SIV mereka ke neraca intern.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Canadian Bank, CIBC, memperingatkan
para investor akan adanya kerugian yang sangat besar saat ACA, perusahaan
rekanannya dalam proses hedging telah menemukan bahwa bond-bond atau
obligasi-obligasi yang diterbitkannya telah jatuh menjadi junk bond<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Bank-bank yang menderita kerugian
membutuhkan suntikan modal agar dapat bertahan. Beberapa mendapatkan bantuan
dari luar negeri terutama dari perusahaan-perusahaan yang dikontrol pemerintah
di negara yang justru masih surplus. Contohnya Abu Dhabi membeli saham dari
Citigroup, pemerintah Cina membeli Bear Stearns dan Morgan Stanley, pemerintah
Singapura menginvetasikan dananya di Merrill Lynch dan UBS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Diluar keadaan perbankan, terjadi
ketegangan sistem finansial dimulai sejak Agustus, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a. Ketegangan di pasar MBS dan CDO. Index
ABX-HE mengalami kejatuhan. MBS market dibekukan dan sangat sulit
memperdagangkan MBS meskipun ratingnya AAA.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">b. Volume asset backed commercial paper turun
30% dan terjadi peningkatan volatilitas money market yields. Perbedaan annual
yield antara 30 days commercial paper dengan treasury bills yang biasanya
berada pada 25-50 basis point pada awal tahun melebar menjadi 155 basis point
pada 28 Agustus dan pernah mencapai 365 basis point pada 20 Agustus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Laporan lehman Brothers manyatakan
bahwa subprime loans bernilai sekitar $1,2 trilyun. Jika harga rumah konstan,
credit losses diperkirakan bernilai $110 Milyar. Jika asumsinya 30-35% harga
rumah turun maka lossesnya bernilai $240 Milyar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Pada bulan Desember, index MBS
peringkat AAA diperdagangkan pada nilai 70% dari par valuenya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Kekhawatiran lainnya adalah bentuk
kredit lain seperti kartu kredit juga akan terimbas. Selain itu, sistem
financial juga berada dalam tingkat leverage yang tinggi. Tingkat utang Wall
Street Firms meningkat dari $300 Milyar pada tahun 2000 menjadi $1,4 Trilyun
pada July 2007.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· FED (Federal Reserve) menghadapi
dilema dalam menentukan tingkat suku bunga. Di satu sisi, Wall Street Frim
menginginkan agar bunga diturunkan, sehingga roda perekonomian bisa kembali
berputar. Di lain pihak, beberapa pengamat melihat bahwa jika bunga diturunkan
akan menyebabkan kebobrokan moral yang
akan membahayakan kembali orang-orang yang terkena krisis subprime mortgage.
Kebijakan keuangan FED mengatakan bahwa pada saat nilai asset naik, kebijakan
tsb tidak berhubungan erat dengan nilai asset tetapi saat harga asset turun di
bawah nilai wajarnya maka kebijakan
ekonomi FED akan berusaha untuk menetralkannya. Akan tetapi performance
kebijakan moneter dari FED bias akibat terjadinya inflasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Dari sudut pandang pihak yang
menginginkan bunga turun, mereka beragumen bahwa bunga diturunkan untuk
mencegah resesi. FED seharusnya fokus pada sistem kesehatan keuangan dan dapat
mengukur kriteria kesehatan tersebut. FED seharusnya bisa melihat keadaan
dengan terjadiya inflasi dan berusaha mencari langkah-langkah perbaikan untuk
membangun kembali pasar keuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· FED tetap mempertahankan rate pada
5,25% sampai 18 September. Sehubungan dengan banyaknya komplain akhirnya FED
menurunkan rate menjadi 4,25% pada 21 Januari 2008.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Kebijakan yang diambil oleh Fed adalah
secara terus menerus menurunkan tingkat suku bunga, dan menjaga inflasi untuk
tidak jauh dari targetnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Kebijakan-kebijakan yang dilakukan FED
pada 17 Maret 2008 :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a. JP Morgan mengakuisisi Bear Staerns<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">b. FED membentuk “Term Securities Lending
Facility” untuk mendukung 28 day loans kepada bank-bank investasi. Terhadap
asset-asset, FED akan memberlakukannya sebagai aktiva berharga yang dijadikan
jaminan untuk pemberian loan baru ini dan mempunyai rating AAA MBS.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Meskipun tingkat bunga sudah
diturunkan kembali, tetap terjadi keresahan resesi karena penyitaan barang
jaminan tetap terjadi. Pemerintahan Bush pernah mengumumkan bahwa rates akan
dibekukan pada beberapa ARM, tetapi pembekuan rate ini hanya berlaku bagi
peminjam yang masih membayar dan mempunyai modal kurang dari 3% di rumahnya.
Akan tetapi ide ini mendapat banyak kritikan karena hanya sedikit orang yang
bisa tertolong. Banyak orang yang menentang kebijakan ini karena kebijakan ini
hanya akan membantu orang-orang yang mampu melakukan refinancing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Menurut Badan Pembuat Undang-Undang,
pemerintah dapat menyediakan government loan atau hibah/sokongan dana untuk
membantu orang-orang kesulitan. Beberapa juga berpendapat untuk meningkatkan
jumlah mortgage yang mampu dibeli kembali oleh GSE dan mempermudah
pembatasan-pembatasan yang diterapkan FHA. Akan tetapi ide ini juga mendapat
perlawanan karena meskipun DP sudah diturunkan dari 3% menjadi 1,5%, FHA tetap
berpendapat bahwa loan yang dikeluarkan oleh lembaga-lembaga private tsb yang
sebetulnya melakukan pelanggaran dan mereka senang jika terjadi gagal bayar dan
terjadi penyitaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· House Judiciary Committee secara
paralel juga berusaha untuk mengurangi pembayaran cicilan jika nilai kredit
yang belum dilunasi (outstanding value) lebih besar daripada nilai rumah itu
sendiri. Akan tetapi lembaga yang mengeluarkan mortgage menentang kebijakan ini
dengan alasan bahwa hal ini akan meningkatkan cost of borrowing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Sebetulnya sudah ada usulan
undang-undang dari House and Senate untuk mengatur industri mortgage itu
sendiri yang bertujuan untuk mengurangi peningkatan “Predatory Lending”. Grup
advokat seperti Centre of Responsible Lending melakukan kampanye untuk
memperkuat hukum anti predatory sepanjang masalah subprime boom. Selama mereka
menerima beberapa hukum negara baru, yang termasuk salah satunya di North
Carolina pada tahun 1999 dan di Georgia pada tahun 2002, permohonan mereka
kepada federal officials tidak didengar. Mengambil sudut pandang yang
berlawanan, VP Dick Cheney membubarkan aturan yang menentang predatory lending
dengan dasar bahwa kita tidak mau mencampuri dasar dari cara kerja pasar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Usulan UU yang disampaikan di depan
kongres dengan tujuan untuk memperkuat hukum tahun 1994 yang disebut HOEPA
(Home Ownership and Equity Protection Act), yang melarang praktek pemberian
pinjaman dengan cicilan tinggi. Definisi high cost sendiri di sini adalah
pinjaman dengan interest rate lebih dari 8% di atas comparable treasury rate.
Akan tetapi faktanya, subprime loans tidak masuk dlm persyaratan tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Perjuangan FED untuk mengusulkan UU
HOEPA tsb mendapat perlawanan dari industri mortgage itu sendiri. Sebetulnya
usulan UU baru dan Predatory Lending ini mirip. Salah satu penyebab
pertentangan ini adalah komponen dalam UU bahwa ada persyaratan bagi pembeli
subprime mortgage pada pasar sekunder untuk mengambil alih tanggung jawab untuk
segala hal yang tidak benar yang dilakukan oleh penerbitnya termasuk penipuan.
UU ini juga mensyaratkan para broker untuk bertindak untuk kepentingan pihak
peminjam dan melarang broker untuk menggiring pihak peminjam masuk dalam
pinjaman dengan beban yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Pihak pemberi kredit mengkhawatirkan
bahwa adanya kewajiban pemindahan kepemilikan dapat menyebabkan hilangnya
pasar. Akan tetapi pihak yang mendukung kewajiban ini berpendapat bahwa
meskipun tingkat kesehatan pasar sekunder telah dijaga, selama kewajiban
totalnya tetap dibatasi dan partisipan di pasar ini telah diberitahu tentang
metode penilaiannya, pihak peminjam siapa saja tetap diterima.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Beberapa ekonom Robert Shilller dari
Yale Univ dan Andrew Caplin dari NYU memberi solusi dimana kreditur seharusnya
menerima apresiasi atas penjualan rumahnya. Kendalanya kreditur tidak akan mau
membiayai rumah tersebut kecuali jika mereka menerima biaya sewa sebagai
tambahan atas biaya apresiasi rumah terhadap sejumlah uang yang sudah mereka bayarkan
di muka. Salah satu usulan untuk mengatasi hal tersebut adalah meningkatkan
bagian rumah yang harus diapresiasikan bagi mereka yang lebih lama menempati
rumah tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Peran rating agencies juga ditanyakan.
Kongres sudah mengajukan usulan UU tahun 2006 untuk mencegah rating agencies
memberikan rating yang tinggi dengan cara menerima bayaran dari pihak yang akan
di rating. Issue lainnya adalah bagaimana rating tersebut seharusnya digunakan?
Rating agencies merupakan wakil pemerintah dalam melakukan supervisi dan pada
akhir tahun 2006, peran rating agencies diperluas di bawah pengawasan US
Financial Regulator. Basel II, usulan peraturan yang mengatur minimum kebutuhan
modal bagi bank umum yang tergantung pada rating eksternal asset bank.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Rating agencies membantah keterlibatan
mereka dalam melakukan kesalahan rating pada saat subprime boom. Mereka
membantah bahwa mereka telah menerima bayaran. Mereka juga menjelaskan bahwa
terjadinya penurunan rating pada semester 2 tahun 2007 mengindikasikan bahwa
performance dari subrpime mortgage yang diterbitkan tahun 2006 memang jelek.
Kemerosotan tersebut masih diselidiki sampai sekarang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Basel II juga memperbolehkan bank
untuk menentukan sendiri minimum modal yang dibutuhkan dengan prinsip manajemen
risiko. Pada pertengahan tahun 2007, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Merrill
Lynch, Lehman Brothers, dan Bear Stearns mengurangi kebutuhan modal yang dapat
tetap mempertahankan posisi aman bagi asset-asset mereka. Untuk mengawasi
penggunaan model ini, dilakukan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">a. Membatasi range sekuritas yang dapat
dipertahankan oleh highly leverage firms<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">b. Mengurangi peran harga pasar karena polanya
anomali selama krisis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Issue lainnya, bagaimana pemerintah
bereaksi terhadap inovasi yang sangat cepat sekali di financial service
industry. Industry ini sudah berkembang sedemikian pesatnya dengan munculnya
CDO, hedge fund, dan SIV. Apakah institusi baru tersebut perlu diawasi dan
diatur? Seandainya dibiarkan berdiri sendiri, apakah regulasi bank dan deposit
yang dijamin pemerintah harus berubah sehubungan dengan kesempatan yang
ditawarkan oleh lembaga-lembaga baru tersebut?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Adanya global inbalance dimana AS
mengkonsumsi lebih besar daripada kemampuannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Krisis ekonomi global saat ini disebabkan oleh
munculnya kredit perumahan terhadap nasabah tidak layak (subprime) senilai 1,2
Trilyun Dollar yang menjadi kredit macet setelah suku bunga pada tahun 2004
dinaikkan dari 1% menjadi 5,25% pada tahun 2006 dan nasabah tidak meningkat
penghasilannya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Berkembangnya derivatif keuangan
melalui MBS (Mortgage Backed Securities) dan CDO (Collaterallized Debt
Obligations) senilai 480 Milyar Dollar yang dijual kepada investor AS dan
asing. Pemegang CDO terakhirlah yang berguguran karena terimbas kredit macet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">· Krisis meluas melahirkan kelangkaan
likuiditas sehingga dana tidak mengalir ke sektor riil dan mengakibatkan
timbulnya resesi ekonomi karena ekonomi AS yang terbesar di dunia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-18808504655150926242014-02-16T03:14:00.002+07:002014-02-16T03:14:55.210+07:00Sistem Keuangan<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Bank dunia (World Bank) mendefinisikan system keuangan
(financial system) sebagai suatu system yang mengatur transfer dana antara
pihak yang kelebihan dana(<i>sarver</i>) dan
pihak yang membutuhkan dana (<i>borrower)</i>
agar tercapai alokasi dana yang efisien serta menyediakan fasilitas keuangan
termasuk system pembayaran yang diperlukan dalam pembiayaan kegiatan bisnis. Dalam
sistem keuangan ini, yang terjadi tidak hanya transfer dana tapi juga transfer
resiko khususnya kepada para pemiliki dan pemegang saham.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Suatu system keuangan diperlukan dan
menjadi penting dalam mengatur aliran dana antara saver dan borrower disebabkan
oleh system keuangan dapat membantu perusahaan untuk membuat keputusan yang
tepat berdasarkan cash flow dan sumber daya yang ada. Ini merupakan informasi
bagi perusahaan agar dapat efisien dalam mengalokasikan sumberdaya yang
dimiliki. Disamping itu, system keuangan diperlukan untuk memonitor dana
(membandingkan antara pengeluaran dengan pendapatan) sehingga perusahaan
mengetahui kondisi dan prospek usahanya. Sistem keuangan juga dapat menjamin
bahwa dana yang diperlukan ditempatkan pada tempat yang tepat untuk menyelesaikan
sebuah kegiatan produksi. Secara jelas, aliran dana dalam sistem keuangan dapat
dilihat pada gambar 1.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Gambar 1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPG8O_qGI4-PqFjTCvSOc71KLSQNcyYXAnYKeAHCBso1S458wepfG3CrsPUedtBuP3OsVms38wb6YL1-0FDTwkFu3j9orci3W0onbWwDotaqd8Xleas9ZLH-CHTKDlddQSoJjJdjGYxQeP/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPG8O_qGI4-PqFjTCvSOc71KLSQNcyYXAnYKeAHCBso1S458wepfG3CrsPUedtBuP3OsVms38wb6YL1-0FDTwkFu3j9orci3W0onbWwDotaqd8Xleas9ZLH-CHTKDlddQSoJjJdjGYxQeP/s1600/cats.jpg" height="278" width="400" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Sumber: Federal
Reserve Flow of Funds (www.federalreserve.gov/release/z1)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Berdasarkan gambar 1, ada dua jenis
pembiayaan yang dilakukan dalam sistem keuangan yaitu pembiayaan langsung dan
pembiayaan tidak langsung. Pada pembiayaan langsung, lender-server langsung
berhubungan dengan borrower-spenders melalui pasar keuangan. Sementara
pembiayaan tidak langsung, hubungan antara pemilik dana dan yang membutuhkan
dana membutuhkan bantuan lembaga intermediaries keuangan. Lender-saver
menyimpan uangnya pada institusi keuangan,kemudian institusi keuangan
memberikan pinjaman kepada yang membutuhkan dana (borrower) dan sebahagiannya
di investasikan dalam pasar keuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Fungsi
Pasar Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pasar keuangan memiliki beberapa fungsi diantaranya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Melakukan fungsi dasar dalam mengalirkan dana dari
pelaku ekonomi yang memiliki kelebihan dana kepada mereka yang kekurangan
dana <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Meningkatkan efisiensi ekonomi dengan menghasilkan
alokasi kapital yang efisien untuk meningkatkan produksi <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Secara langsung meningkatkan kepuasan konsumen dengan
meningkatkan daya beli yang lebih baik <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Struktur
Pasar Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Dalam pasar keuangan pasar dapat dibagi menjadi 3 yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hutang dan pasar Equity</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -35.45pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> Equity adalah total assets dikurangi
total liabilities, dimana ini juga diartikan sebagai kekayaan pemegang saham (shareholder’s equity) atau net worth atau nilai buku (book
value).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pasar Primer dan Pasar Sekunder (Primary and Secondary
Markets. </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Pasar primer adalah pasar dimana
bank-bank investasi menyediaka sekuritas untuk diperdagangkan. Sementara pasar
sekunder adalah tempat bertransaksi dan bekerjanya para broaker dan dealer
dalam membeli dan menjual sekuritas. Para investor mendapatkan share melalui
dua jenis pasar ini yaitu pasar primer dan pasar sekunder.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Lebih
jelasnya d</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">i
dalam pasar primer, sekuritas diperjualbelikan secara langsung oleh perusahaan
kepada public sementara dalam pasar sekunder saham diperdagangkan diantara dua
investor. Dengan kata lain, sebuah perdagangan diaktakan pasar primer adalah ketika
share pertama kali dibeli oleh investor secara langsung dari perusahaan atau
bank investasi. Setelah itu, setiap saham yang diperdagangkan akan masuk ke
dalam pasar sekunder untuk diperdagangkan diantara para investor.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Di dalam pasar primer, penetapan harga
sering dilakukan lebih awal oleh para perusahaan. Sementara di dalam pasar
sekunder, harga sekuritas ditentukan oleh kekuatan demand dan supply. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Exchanges and Over-the-Counter (OTC) Markets</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">adalah pasar
untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">memperdagangkan
instrumen keuangan seperti stock,
bonds, commodities atau derivatif secara langsung antara dua belah pihak (langsung
dari bank investasi kepada nasabahnya secara langsung)<i> <o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -36.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-style: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Money and Capital Markets (pasar uang dan pasar modal. </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Perbedaan
antara pasar uang dan pasar modal adalah periode waktunya. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pasar uang (Money markets) terjadi pada
instrumen hutang jangka pendek( short-term debt instruments). Sementara pasae
modal terjadi pada instrumen ekuitas dan
hutang jangka panjang (longer-term debt and <br />
equity instruments)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Berikut adalah contoh dari
instrument-instrumen yang ada dalam pasar uang:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1031"
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1030"
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Pasar
Keuangan Internasional<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Dalam pasar keuangan internasional ada 4 jenis sekuritas
yang diperdagangkan yaitu; foreign bond,euro bond, Eurocurrencies dan pasar
stock dunia. Foreign Bonds, dijual di luar negeri dan dijual dengan menggunakan
mata uang negara tersebut. Eurobondbond, dijual dengan menggunakan satu mata
uang yang sudah disepakati bukan menggunakan mata uang negara-negara yang ada
di dalamnya. Eurocurrencies, mata uang luar negeri yang didepositokan di bank
di luar negara tersebut, misalnya Eurodollars, yaitu U.S. dollars yang disimpan
pada bank luar negeri yang berkantor juga di luar negeri atau foreign branches
of U.S. banks<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhhSdIfY0HSU7sAYzvx9c90KBfXd6nJ76REZNd0kl8eJpPNB4h8QYBCSXHt5Z_F9tshJ9sEV2ut-5TLj55x2x465r3528-Vykvn0cRFsAaFbFjjw_Ud205M64hHn2gsnVrrixf1mpQ0dSb/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhhSdIfY0HSU7sAYzvx9c90KBfXd6nJ76REZNd0kl8eJpPNB4h8QYBCSXHt5Z_F9tshJ9sEV2ut-5TLj55x2x465r3528-Vykvn0cRFsAaFbFjjw_Ud205M64hHn2gsnVrrixf1mpQ0dSb/s1600/cats.jpg" height="320" width="259" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Fungsi
Intermediaris Keuangan: Pembiayaan tidak langsung<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Lembaga intermediasi keuangan dibangun untuk membantu dalam
pembiayaan tidak langsung antara lender dan borrower. Dalam pembiayaan tidak
langsung ini, lembaga intermediasi keuangan memiliki 3 fungsi yaitu menurunkan
biaya transaksi (<i>lower transaction costs</i>)
karena pembiayaan akan ditentukan berdasarkan skala ekonominya dan jasa
likuiditas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Lembaga intermediasi keuangan ini juga dapat menurunkan
resiko, karena dengan adanya lembaga intermediaries, maka resiko akan dibagi
sehingga resiko keuangan yang ada tidak hanya ditanggung oleh satu orang. Hal
ini disebbakan oleh adanya perpindahan asset dari satu orang kepada orang lain.
Selain itu, resiko juga dapat diminimalisir karena adanya diversifikasi dalam
produk perbankan (institusi keuangan). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Lembaga intermediaries juga dapat menurunkan tingkat
asymmetric information yang dapat menimbulkan adverse selection yang biasanya
terjadi sebelum transaksi keuangan. Hal ini akan lebih meningkatkan
kehati-hatian dalam menilai peminjam yang beresiko. Asymmetric information juga
dapat menimbulkan moral hazard yang biasannya terjadi setelah transaksi keuangan,
seperti apakah peminjam akan mengembalikan pinjaman atau tidak. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Tabel berikut adalah bentuk-bentuk dari asset dan
liabilities primer dari intermediasi keuangan;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiurK2hyphenhyphenN8AD13NQHlAMUVYbN6oUamR3l9M7dwnxEovaUxbj48lzWBO0kRf3h8y9jiF4bHl_uLgndobwz-0atqn8R9Ykh4agipnmi6SG4n-tk612_W6MKpajidBp6_gHA3po2VXgQ-DMN2Z/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiurK2hyphenhyphenN8AD13NQHlAMUVYbN6oUamR3l9M7dwnxEovaUxbj48lzWBO0kRf3h8y9jiF4bHl_uLgndobwz-0atqn8R9Ykh4agipnmi6SG4n-tk612_W6MKpajidBp6_gHA3po2VXgQ-DMN2Z/s1600/cats.jpg" height="247" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1029"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Mishkin_c02t03" style='width:371.25pt;height:292.5pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\TOSHIBA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png"
o:title="Mishkin_c02t03"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Sumber: Federal
Reserve Flow of Funds (www.federalreserve.gov/release/z1)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZu6jong1CJYV9VIyQbss5OZKnnmjQ6ZzCMDKH3dz50B45U5pAn9q8a4VzJ9O6UBADuBcoE-VD3SpDT-P1sKCkRoSaBZvdrAbvLsl4y6KfrT8hALLW_YLarg6LUe2aOIY7O-3rTGYcfmkE/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZu6jong1CJYV9VIyQbss5OZKnnmjQ6ZzCMDKH3dz50B45U5pAn9q8a4VzJ9O6UBADuBcoE-VD3SpDT-P1sKCkRoSaBZvdrAbvLsl4y6KfrT8hALLW_YLarg6LUe2aOIY7O-3rTGYcfmkE/s1600/cats.jpg" height="199" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1028"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Mishkin_c02t04" style='width:388.5pt;height:244.5pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\TOSHIBA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png"
o:title="Mishkin_c02t04"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Regulasi
Sistem Keuangan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Regulasi sistem keuangan dilakukan untuk meningkatkan jumlah
informasi yang disediakan bagi para investor. Dengan adannya regulasi sistem
keuangan, diharapkan lembaga intermediasi keuangan semakin mampu mengurangi
segala jenis resiko seperti masalah adverse selection dan moral hazard serta
insider trading. Disamping itu, regulasi tersebut juga dapat memperkuat keberadaan
dari intermediasi keuangan terhadap:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Restrictions on entry<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Disclosure<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Restrictions on Assets and Activities<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Deposit Insurance<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Limits on Competition<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Restrictions on Interest Rates<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Yang contohnya dapat dilihat pada table 5. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq0xeve8F_Q9eWDs5nj3AMlLa9MGk28QKVOXCndBedf46zSt17233GFRB84oopX4XrzTbUEDYp8wyesNOZ1JSOjuJTXckvNJc4jBfoDBHR_52VB2l8IxKA7YS-9KJVM3jowx1VXicx-ND2/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq0xeve8F_Q9eWDs5nj3AMlLa9MGk28QKVOXCndBedf46zSt17233GFRB84oopX4XrzTbUEDYp8wyesNOZ1JSOjuJTXckvNJc4jBfoDBHR_52VB2l8IxKA7YS-9KJVM3jowx1VXicx-ND2/s1600/cats.jpg" height="320" width="300" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_8" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Mishkin_c02t05_whole"
style='width:387.75pt;height:420.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\TOSHIBA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title="Mishkin_c02t05_whole"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sumber: Federal Reserve Flow of Funds
(www.federalreserve.gov/release/z1)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></i></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-74508406528158638842014-02-16T03:07:00.005+07:002014-02-16T03:07:58.815+07:00Pengenalan Uang dan Sistem Keuangan<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: red;">Why Study Money, Banking, and Financial Markets?</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Untuk mengkaji bagaimana pasar keuangan seperti saham, obligasi dan pasar valuta asing (foreign
exchange) bekerja</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Untuk mengkaji bagaimana institusi keuangan seperti bank dan perusahaan asuransi bekerja</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Untuk mengkaji aturan uang dalam perekonomian (<i>the
role of money in </i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i>the economy)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: red;"><b>Lima Bagian Sistem Keuangan</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.Uang</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2.Instrumen Keuangan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Untuk mentransfer kekayaan dari savers kepada investors dan mentransfer resiko kepada pihak yang memegang kekayaan tersebut( security:<i>a claim
on the issuer’s future income or assets</i>)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Pasar Keuangan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Membeli dan menjual instrumen keuangan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4. Institusi Keuangan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Menyediakan akses untuk pasar keuangan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5. Bank Sentral</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Memonitor institusi keuangan dan menstabilkan ekonomi</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: red;"><b>The Bond Market and Interest Rates</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Saham adalah sebuah surat berharga
yang menjanjikan sebuah pembayaran secara periodik untuk jangka waktu tertentu</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Tingkat bunga adalah biaya peminjaman atau harga yang dibayarkan untuk pinjaman dana\</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: red;"><b>The Stock Market</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•Common stock represents a share of ownership in a
corporation</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•A share of stock is a claim on the earnings and assets of
the corporation</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>The Foreign
Exchange Market</b></span><br />
(Pasar Valuta Asing)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pasar
Valas Adalah dimana dana ditukarkan dari satu mata uang ke mata uang lainnya </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The
foreign exchange rate (nilai tukar
valas) adalah harga satu mata uang terhadap mata uang lain</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pasar
valuta asing menentukan nilai tukar valas </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>Lima
Prinsip Pokok Uang dan Perbankan</b></span></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Waktu memiliki uang </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Resiko membutuhkan kompensasi </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Informasi berdasarkan keputusan
</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Pasar menetapkan harga dan
mengalokasikan resources</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-US">Kestabilan meningkatkan
kesejahteraan </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>Money and
Business Cycles</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Buktri
empiris menyarankan bahwa uang memegang peranan penting dalam menggerakkan
siklus bisnis </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Resesi
(unemployment) and booms (inflation) mempengaruhi kita semua </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Teori
moneter merubah money supply untuk merubah aktivitas ekonomi dan tingkat harga </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>Uang dan
Inflasi</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">The
aggregate price level adalah harga rata-rata barang dan jasa dalam sebuah
perekonomian </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kenaikan
harga secara terus menerus (inflation) mempengaruhi semua aktor ekonomi </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Data
menunjukkan adanya sebuah hubungan
antara money supply dan tingkat harga </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>Kebijakan
Moneter dan Kebijakan Fiscal</b></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kebijakan
moneter adalah manajemen money supply dan tingkat bunga </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Conducted in the U.S. by the Federal
Reserve Bank (Fed)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Di Indonesia dilakukan oleh Bank
Indonesia</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kebijakan
Fiskal adalah government spending <br />
and taxation</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Budget deficit adalah Kelebihan
pengeluaran dari pendapatan pada tahun tertentu </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Budget surplus adalah kelebihan
pendapatan dari pengeluaran pada tahun tertentu </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72.0pt; mso-list: l5 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Wingdings 2"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Wingdings 2";">®<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Setiap defisit biasanya dibiayai
oleh utang </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span style="color: red;"><b>How We Will
Study Money, Banking, and Financial Markets</b></span></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
sederhana terhadap permintaan asset</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Konsep
ekuilibrium </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dasar
demand dan supply untuk menjelaskan prilaku dalam pasar keuangan </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pencarian
profit</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pendekatan
pada struktur keuangan berdasarkan transaction costs and asymmetric information</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-font-family: Times;">•<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Aggregate
supply and demand analysis</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Oleh : </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.38in;">Yessy</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.38in;"> </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.38in;">Andriani</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.38in;">, SE,MIDEC</span></div>
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -0.38in;">Faculty of Economics</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p>
</o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-68510727622388264162014-02-16T02:50:00.000+07:002014-02-16T03:17:49.800+07:00Defenisi, Klasifikasi dan Peranan Uang dalam Perekonomian<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<b><span lang="EN-US">1. PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">1.1 Ekonomi Moneter<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Sebelum kita membahas masalah
uang, terlebih dahulu kita mengetahui apa itu pengertian ekonomi moneter. Ekonomi
Moneter adalah bagian dari ilmu ekonomi yang mempelajari sifat fungsi dan
pengaruh uang terhadap kegiatan ekonomi. Kegiatan ekonomi secara umum dapat
diartikan sebagai suatu bentuk kegiatan yang dapat mempengaruhi tingkat
pengangguran, produksi, tingkat harga dan hubungan perdagangan/pembayaran
internasional.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Melalui ekonomi moneter dapat dipahami bagaimana
mekanisme penciptaan uang, tingkat bunga, pasar uang, sistem dan kebijakan
moneter serta pembayaran internasional. </span><span lang="SV">Ekonomi moneter juga dapat menganalisis fenomena moneter dalam kaitannya
dengan efek kebijakan moneter terhadap kegiatan ekonomi. Dengan demikian kita
dapat menyimpulkan bahwa ekonomi moneter menganalis hubungan antara variabel
ekonomi riil pada tingkat aggregate dan variabel nominal seperti tingkat
inflasi, tingkat bunga nominal, nilai tukar nominal dan money supply<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="SV"> </span><b style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="SV">1.2 Fokus Ekonomi Moneter</span></b></div>
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<span lang="SV">Dalam pelajaran ekonomi
moneter, pelajaran ini terfokus kepada tiga bagian besar yaitu: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Penentuan tingkat harga (price
level determination). Ini mengacu kepada pembahasan bagaimana harga
ditentukan dalam perekonomian dan bagaimana harga akan menentukan
inflasi. Pembahasan harga tidak terlepas pada usaha pengambil kebijakan
dalam menciptakan <i>price stability</i>
(stabilitas harga). </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Inflasi. Inflasi merupakan
masalah moneter yang sangat ditakuti oleh setiap Negara, berawal dari
ketidak stabilan harga akan menciptkan ketidakstabilan inflasi. Dalam hal
ini, ekonomi moneter akan menitik beratkan kepada penyebab dan pembagian
inflasi. Disamping itu ekonomi moneter juga memberikan solusi pemecahan
masalah inflasi dan bagaimana inflasi dapat mempengaruhi perekonomian
suatu Negara secara keseluruhan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Aturan kebijakan moneter (<i>the role of monetary policy</i>). Pada
bagian ini ekonomi moneter akan menjelaskan bagaimana kebijakan moneter
tersebut diformulasikan dalam mencapai tujuan kebijakan moneter tersebut
atau dengan kata lain bagaimana aturan kebijakan moneter dalam
menyelesaikan masalah moneter. </span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kebijakan moneter disini terbagi dua yaitu <i>tight money policy (contractionary monetary
policy</i>) atau dikenal dengan kebijakan uang ketat dan <i>easy money policy (expansionary monetary policy)</i> atau yang dikenal
dengan kebijakan moneter longgar. Kedua jenis kebijakan moneter tersebut akan
digunakan untuk mencapai keseimbangan moneter dan bersama sama dengan kebijakan
fiscal akan mempengaruhi perekonomian secara keseluruhan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">UANG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2.1. Defenisi Uang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Banyak literature review memberikan defenisi tentang uang seperti; “<i>Money is an asset that is generally accepted
as payment for goods and services or repayment of debt”</i>. Artinya, Uang
adalah sebuah asset yang diterima secara umum sebagai alat pembayaran barang
dan jasa atau pembayaran kembali hutang. Disamping itu banyak literature yang juga
menyebutkan bahwa “ <i>money as a way of
avoiding the complexities and difficulties of barter</i>”, dimana uang juga
merupakan suatu cara untuk menghindari terjadinya kompleksitas dan kesulitan
dari barter yang sebelumnya dijadikan oleh orang sebagai system pertukaran. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">2.2 Kharakteristik Uang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Uang memiliki 3 fungsi yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">1. A means of payment.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Uang digunakan sebagai a medium of exchange (alat
tukar), uang berarti alat untuk transaksi dimana orang tidak lagi perlu
menukarkan satu barang untuk mendapatkan barang lain (barter). Because money is
accepted as a medium of exchange, you can sell</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">2. A unit of Account<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">adalah standar hitung pengukuran nilai pasar barang,
jasa dan berbagai macam transaksi. Sebagai sebuah pengukuran nilai, uang
membuat transaksi menjadi sangat simple</span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US">3. A Store of Value<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Bentuk uang atau
financial capital harus dapat bersifat aman untuk disimpan dan recover
kembali dan menjadi bermanfaat ketika dia diretrieved kembali.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Keuntungan efisiensi dari penggunaan uang adalah untuk mendorong perdagangan
dan meningkatkan produktivity dan kekayaan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2.3. Tipe Uang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">Commodity Money</span></i></b><span lang="EN-US"> – yaitu sesuatu
yang memiliki nilai intrinsik sebagai barang yang diperdagangkan dan nilai
itu melekat pada barang itu sendiri. Contohnya emas.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">Fiat Money</span></i></b><span lang="EN-US"> – <i>Value comes from government decree (or
fiat).</i> Uang yang tidak memiliki nilai intrinsic tetapi nilainya datang
dari pemerintah, artinya pemerintah yang menyepakati berapa nilai suatu
yang dianggap uang. Contohnya; paper, coins or an electronic exchange </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">Checks</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-US">Instruksi pada bank untuk menarik uang dari akun yang
ada di bank dan mentransfernya kepada orang yang namanya tertulis di atas
kertas tersebut </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US">Liquidity</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">a measure of the ease an asset can be turned into a
means of payment (Money).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">2.4 Pengukuran Uang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Selain uang dibedakan berdasarkan tipenya, defenisi uang juga
dibedakan berdasarkan kepada derajat likuiditasnya. Sentral bank mendefenisikan
uang adalah sebagai aggregat moneter (<i>monetary
aggregates</i>) yang dibedakan atas 3 bagian:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US">1<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">M0: Jumlah reserve yang ada
pada perbankan dan jumlah uang yang berada pada masyarakat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US">2<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">M1 (Narrow Money): Jumlah uang
beredar dalam arti sempit</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">M1= M0+demand deposit</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US">3<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">M2 (Broad Money): Jumlah uang
beredar dalam arti luas</span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">M2= M1+time deposit</span></div>
</div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-36949705595512454362014-02-16T02:35:00.000+07:002014-02-16T02:35:10.684+07:00PENTINGNYA MODAL SOSIAL DALAM PEMBANGUNAN PASCA BENCANA<!--[if !mso]>
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<![endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Pentingnya Modal Sosial Dalam Pembangunan Pasca Bencana</b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Salah
satu dokumen mengatakan bahwa pembangunan perkotaan akan sustainable jika di
dalamnya memberikan generasi mendatang income disertai opportunity pertumbuhan
capital (minimal sama dengan generasi sekarang) yang dapat diperlihatkan dengan
relatif lebih tinggi capital per kapita dibanding generasi sekarang.
Modal-modal itu dapat dilukiskan sebagai human capital (investasi dalam
pendidikan, kesehatan, atau gizi), social capital (fungsi dan keberadaan
kelembagaan dan budaya dalam masyarakat), natural capital (fungsi dan
keberadaan sumberdaya alam dan lingkungan) dan man-made capital (investasi yang
umumnya terhitung dalam anggaran perekonomian) (Majalah Prisma Volume 6 1997 –
LP3ES Jakarta, hlm 6).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal Sosial<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Definisi</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
sosial adalah suatu konsep dengan berbagai definisi yang saling terkait, yang
didasarkan pada nilai jaringan sosial. Sejak konsepnya dicetuskan, istilah
"modal sosial" telah digambarkan sebagai "sesuatu yang sangat
manjur" [Portes, 1998:1] bagi semua masalah yang menimpa komunitas dan
masyarakat pada masa kini.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
sosial adalah bagian-bagian dari organisasi sosial seperti kepercayaan, norma
dan jaringan yang dapat meningkatkan efisiensi masyarakat dengan memfasilitasi
tindakan-tindakan yang terkoordinasi. Modal sosial juga didefinisikan sebagai
kapabilitas yang muncul dari kepercayaan umum di dalam sebuah masyarakat atau
bagian-bagian tertentu dari masyarakat tersebut. Selain itu, konsep ini juga
diartikan sebagai serangkaian nilai atau norma informal yang dimiliki bersama
di antara para anggota suatu kelompok yang memungkinkan terjalinnya kerjasama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
pandangan ilmu ekonomi, modal adalah segala sesuatu yang dapat menguntungkan
atau menghasilkan. Modal itu sendiri dapat dibedakan atas :</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
yang berbentuk material seperti uang, gedung atau barang; </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
budaya dalam bentuk kualitas pendidikan; kearifan budaya lokal; dan </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
sosial dalam bentuk kebersamaan, kewajiban sosial yang diinstitusionalisasikan
dalam bentuk kehidupan bersama, peran, wewenang, tanggungjawab, sistem
penghargaan dan keterikatan lainnya yang menghasilkan tindakan kolektif. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
sosial menjadi perekat bagi setiap individu, dalam bentuk norma, kepercayaan
dan jaring kerja, sehingga terjadi kerjasama yang saling menguntungkan, untuk
mencapai tujuan bersama. Modal sosial juga dipahami sebagai pengetahuan dan
pemahaman yang dimiliki bersama oleh komunitas, serta pola hubungan yang
memungkinkan sekelompok individu melakukan satu kegiatan yang produktif. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menurut
Lesser (2000), modal sosial ini sangat penting bagi komunitas karena </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memberikan
kemudahan dalam mengakses informasi bagi anggota komunitas; </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Menjadi
media pembagian kekuasaan dalam komunitas; </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengembangkan
solidaritas; </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memungkinkan
mobilisasi sumber daya komunitas; </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Memungkinkan
pencapaian bersama; dan </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Membentuk
perilaku kebersamaam dan berorganisasi komunitas. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Modal
sosial merupakan suatu komitmen dari setiap individu untuk saling terbuka,
saling percaya, memberikan kewenangan bagi setiap orang yang dipilihnya untuk
berperan sesuai dengan tanggungjawabnya. Sarana ini menghasilkan rasa
kebersamaan, kesetiakawanan, dan sekaligus tanggungjawab akan kemajuan bersama.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diberlakukannya
Undang-Undang NO. 22 Tahun 1999 tentang Pemerintah Daerah telah memberikan
peluang bagi daerah (kabupaten dan kota) untuk menciptakan kemandirian dalam
rangka membangun daerahnya dengan berpijak pada prinsip-prinsip demokrasi,
partisipasi dan peran serta masyarakat, pemerataan dan keadilan serta
memperhatikan potensi dan keanekaragaman daerah untuk mengoptimalkan
pemanfaatan sumber daya lokal. Lokal menurut pemahaman UU No. 22 Tahun 1999
adalah pada tataran mikro artinya istilah lokal untuk menyebut kawasan daerah
tingkat satu/propinsi, daerah tingkat dua/ kabupaten atau kota, dan
dimungkinkan lokal untuk menyebut yang lebih spesifik yaitu kecamatan dan desa.
Jadi institusi lokal merupakan asosiasi komunitas setempat yang bertanggung
jawab atas proses kegiatan pembangunan setempat, seperti rukun tetangga, arisan
trah, kelompok pengajian, kelompok ronda dan sejenisnya dan memberikan manfaat
bagi masyarakat dan pemerintah setempat. Institusi lokal dalam komunitas harus
dilihat sebagai suatu sistem yang saling silang menyilang<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dan institusi lokal telah menyediakan jaring
pengaman sosial (sosial safety net) ketika komunitas lokal berada dalam situasi
krisis. Kehadiran institusi lokal bukan atas kepentingan pribadi/individu
tetapi atas kepentingan bersama, sehingga institusi lokal lama kelamaan
menduduki posisi penting dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan lokal. Rasa saling
percaya warga komunitas lokal yang digalang dan diasah melalui institusi ini
semakin hari semakin didambakan sebagai modal sosial (sosial capital). (Drs. M.
Pupu Saeful Rahmat M.Pd., Memupuk institusi lokal dan modal sosial dalam
kehidupan bermasyarakat, posted on 29 Maret 2008)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 128.25pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengalaman
Bencana</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gempa bumi Sumatera Barat 2009</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Gempa
Bumi Sumatera Barat 2009 terjadi dengan kekuatan 7,6 Skala Richter di lepas
pantai Sumatera Barat pada pukul 17:16:10 WIB tanggal 30 September 2009. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gempa ini terjadi di lepas pantai Sumatera,
sekitar 50 km barat laut Kota Padang. Gempa menyebabkan kerusakan parah di
beberapa wilayah di Sumatera Barat seperti Kabupaten Padang Pariaman, Kota
Padang, Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, Kota Pariaman, Kota Bukittinggi, Kota
Padangpanjang, Kabupaten Agam, Kota Solok, dan Kabupaten Pasaman Barat. Menurut
data Satkorlak PB, banyaknya 6.234 orang tewas akibat gempa ini yang tersebar
di 3 kota & 4 kabupaten di Sumatera Barat, korban luka berat mencapai 1.214
orang, luka ringan 1.688 orang, korban hilang 1 orang. Sedangkan 135.448 rumah
rusak berat, 65.380 rumah rusak sedang, & 78.604 rumah rusak ringan</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 102.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Latar belakang<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Provinsi
Sumatera Barat berada di antara pertemuan dua lempeng benua besar (lempeng
Eurasia dan lempeng Indo-Australia) dan patahan (sesar) Semangko. Di dekat
pertemuan lempeng terdapat patahan Mentawai. Ketiganya merupakan daerah seismik
aktif. Menurut catatan ahli gempa wilayah Sumatera Barat memiliki siklus 200
tahunan gempa besar yang pada awal abad ke-21 telah memasuki masa berulangnya
siklus</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kejadian gempa</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Bencana
terjadi sebagai akibat dua gempa yang terjadi kurang dari 24 jam pada lokasi
yang relatif berdekatan. Pada hari Rabu 30 September terjadi gempa berkekuatan
7,6 pada Skala Richter dengan pusat gempa (episentrum) 57 km di barat daya Kota
Pariaman (00,84 LS 99,65 BT) pada kedalaman (hiposentrum) 71 km. Pada hari
Kamis 1 Oktober terjadi lagi gempa kedua dengan kekuatan 6,8 Skala Richter,
kali ini berpusat di 46 km tenggara Kota Sungaipenuh pada pukul 08.52 WIB
dengan kedalaman 24 km. kedua gempa ini terjadi rangkaian gempa susulan yang
lebih lemah. Gempa pertama terjadi pada daerah patahan Mentawai (di bawah laut)
sementara gempa kedua terjadi pada patahan Semangko di daratan. Getaran gempa
pertama dilaporkan terasa kuat di seluruh wilayah Sumatera Barat, terutama di pesisir.
Keguncangan juga dilaporkan dari Pematang Siantar, Medan, Kuala Lumpur, Bandar
Seri Begawan, Lembah Klang, Jabodetabek, Jakarta, Singapura, Pekanbaru, Jambi,
Pulau Batam dari Kota Batam, Palembang dan Bengkulu. Dilaporkan bahwa
pengelolaan sejumlah gedung bertingkat di Singapura mengevakuasi stafnya. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kerusakan parah terjadi di kabupaten-kabupaten
pesisir Sumatera Barat, bagian selatan Sumatera Utara serta Kabupaten Kerinci
(Jambi). Sementara Bandar Udara Internasional Minangkabau mengalami kerusakan
pada sebagian atap bandara (sepanjang 100 meter) yang terlihat hancur dan
sebagian jaringan listrik di bandara juga terputus. Sempat ditutup dengan
alasan keamanan, bandara dibuka kembali pada tanggal 1 Oktober.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Akibat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Peringatan
tsunami sempat dikeluarkan namun segera dicabut dan terdapat laporan kerusakan
rumah maupun kebakaran. Sejumlah hotel di Padang rusak, dan upaya untuk
mencapai Padang cukup susah akibat terputusnya komunikasi. Korban tewas akibat
gempa terus bertambah, dikhawatirkan mencapai ribuan orang. Namun demikian,
hingga tanggal 4 Oktober 2009, angka resmi yang dikeluarkan Badan Nasional
Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB) adalah 603 orang korban tewas dan 343 orang
dilaporkan hilang. Pada tanggal 13 Oktober 2009, angka korban tewas meningkat
menjadi 6.234 jiwa. Pertolongan yang sangat dibutuhkan oleh korban gempa
terutama adalah kekurangan obat-obatan, air bersih, listrik, dan
telekomunikasi, serta mengevakuasi korban lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kesimpulan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Partisipasi
Masyarakat</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pemerintah
daerah termasuk perencana kota/pemukiman harus segera mempertimbangkan proses
tata kelola kota/wilayah yang terencana baik dan tidak hanya berdasarkan
pesanan. Kepentingan ekonomi publik dan kerjasama organisasi termasuk didalamnya
modal sosial mempengaruhi kinerja produktivitas perkotaan. Semakin besar jumlah
organisasi memberi peluang spesialisasi, kerjasama dan koordinasi untuk
memanfaatkan aktivitas ekonomi perkotaaan. Tingkat pengambilan keputusan
desentralisasi memberi peluang mobilisasi organisasi untuk menjalankan
aktifitas ekonomi. Dalam hubungan ini governance merupakan titik awal dari
pengelolaan sumberdaya perkotaan, menentukan peranan private sector, dan
mengoperasikan pelayanan dan infrastruktur perkotaan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kerjasama non formal juga diperlukan untuk
membangun kota/wilayah termasuk membangun kota pasca bencana (Iwan Nugroho,
1997, Modal sosial dan perkembangan kota, Prisma volume 6 : 3 – 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Keterlibatan
masyarakat dalam pembangunan kota pasca bencana selama ini masih belum
maksimal. Pemerintah daerah masih lebih banyak mengacu pada pesanan pemberi
bantuan/dana untuk pembangunan fisik di wilayahnya seperti rumah tinggal, rumah
sakit, puskesmas, pasar dan tempat pelayanan publik lainnya. Akibatnya tidak
sedikit bangunan fisik yang dibangun pasca bencana kurang sesuai dengan budaya
dan kondisi lokal masyarakat. Salah satu bangunan mesjid di Kabupaten Klaten misalnya,
awalnya bangunannya sederhana dan cukup untuk komunitas setempat. Setelah
bencana gempa, masjid tersebut menjadi besar dan bergaya turki/arab.
Rumah-rumah di pedesaan di Jawa biasanya berbentuk limasan atau joglo atau ada
semacam teras yang biasanya dipakai untuk bercengkerama antar penduduk yang
juga berfungsi sebagai tempat menjemur gabah. Bangunan rumah setelah gempa
biasanya menjadi rumah modern, tidak ada lagi teras luas untuk tempat pertemuan
warga. Demikian pula halnya dengan bangunan pasar dan sekolah, menjadi lebih
modern dan banyak yang kemudian menjadi bangunan bertingkat. Pemerintah
setempat kemungkinan akan kesulitan mengadakan perbaikan apabila terjadi
kerusakan pada bangunan pasar yang berkonstruksi baja ringan, karena disamping
tidak sederhana juga mahal. Tidak sedikit komunitas setempat dibuat kaget
dengan munculnya satu bangunan di lokasi umum, seperti bangunan WC umum bisa
berdiri di pojok lapangan sepak bola di salah satu desa di Yogyakarta tanpa
melibatkan pengurus RT/RW setempat dalam proses perencanaanya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Melihat
fenomena tersebut, dalam pengalaman pembangunan kota pasca bencana, masyarakat
berpartisipasi secara pasif, karena mereka hanya menjadi penerima program.
Sebenarnya sangat dimungkinkan masyarakat berpartisipasi aktif yang berarti
terlibat dalam berbagai kesempatan, meskipun solusi tetap datang dari pihak
luar - mengingat budaya lokal pedesaan yang menjunjung musyawarah dan gotong
royong. Kalau ada partisipasi aktif masyarakat dalam membangun perkotaan pasca
bencana tentulah bangunan puskesmas tidak akan seperti saat ini, terlalu luas
dan banyak ruang meskipun jumlah tenaga medisnya masih sama dengan sebelum
bencana, sehingga puskesmas terlihat kosong kurang mencerminkan itu suatu
tempat pelayanan umum. Partisipasi masyarakat tidak hanya terbatas pada
pengadaan kembali bangunan pasca gempa, namun juga tindakan-tindakan
penyelamatan bila terjadi gempa. Untuk mengurangi dampak burung bencana dari
Gunung Merapi misalnya, masyarakat kemudian diberi pendidikan tentang cara
penyelamatan yang meliputi jalur evakuasi dan tempat evakuasi jika terjadi
bencana. Bantuan yang masuk dikelola oleh pemerintah daerah dan organisasi
swasta untuk memperkecil dampak buruk bencana gunung merapi. Partisipasi
masyarakat tidak hanya dalam standar partisipasi pasif atau parsipasi aktif
saja, namun sudah pada ukuran partisipasi interaktif yang artinya masyarakat
terlibat mulai perencanaan sampai dengan evaluasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Diberlakukannya
otonomi daerah semakin memberi peluang untuk mempertimbangkan modal sosial yang
ada di komunitas lokal dalam membangun kota/wilayah pasca bencana. Kegiatan
yang diselenggarakan dan bangunan yang diadakan akan menjadi tepat dan
terpelihara karena masyarakat merasa memiliki kegiatan /bangunan tersebut,
mereka ikut dalam semua proses pengadaannya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-88481743776678498682014-02-16T02:00:00.001+07:002014-02-16T02:01:37.454+07:00KESEIMBANGAN PASAR<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.4pt;">
<span class="longtext"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">CHAPTER 1 <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.4pt;">
<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.4pt;">
<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ekonomi
bukan lah hal yang jelas sehingga perbedaan yang terjadi selalu menuangkan
definisi yang berbeda yang menimbulkan kontraversi.ciri umum dari defin9isi
ekonomi merupakan bagian dari studi penggunaan sumber daya yang terbatas dari
alternatif yang dipakai jika diartikan secara luas hal ini mencakup ,tinggi
,pengangguran yang terjadi sehinga dengan demikian alternatif yang harus
diambil ekonomi itu sendiri<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.4pt;">
<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">. </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1-1 PERAN TEORI <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: -.3pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Penjelasan dan prediksi adalah
tujuan dari ekonomi serta ilmu-ilmu yang lain. Baik analisis teoritis dan
penyelidikan empiris yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut. <span style="background: white;">Biasanyamempunyai hubungan erat antar dipintal dengan benangnya dalam
contoh-contoh konkret penelitian, namun ada perbedaan yang nyata antara mereka.
</span>Teori menggunakan penalaran deduktif abstrak dimana keberhasilan diambil dari jumlah asumsi awal. Dan studi
murni empiris induktif di alam. Kedua
pendekatan ini merupakan 'pelengkap, karena teori memberikan
panduan untuk penelitian empiris dan studi empiris memberikan asumsi dan
kesimpulan dari teori. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="longtext"><span style="background: white;">Pada dasarnya, teori
mengandung tiga elemen: (1) data yang memainkan peran parameter dan diasumsikan
diberikan dari luar analitis </span>kerangka kerja; (2) variabel, besaran yang
ditentukan dalam teori, dan (3) perilaku asumsi atau postulat yang menentukan
seperangkat operasi dimana nilai dari variabel yang telah ditetapkan. <span style="background: white;">Menghasilkan
dari sebuah argumen teoritis dari
apa yang akan terjadi
pada alam. </span>Mereka
menyatakan apa hasil dari proses ekonomi akan jika asumsi awal yang puas, yaitu
jika data yang sebenarnya diberikan dan asumsi perilaku dibenarkan. ,
investigasi empiris memungkinkan perbandingan asumsi dan menghasilkan teori
dengan fakta yang diamati. Namun, persyaratan yang ketat dari kesesuaian antara
teori dan fakta akan mengalahkan tujuan dari teori. Teori merupakan
penyederhanaan dan generalisasi dari realitas dan karena itu tidak sepenuhnya
menggambarkan situasi tertentu. Dari data fariabel dapat diasumsikan bahwa
perilaku teori disajikan dalam bab-bab selanjutnya yang dipenuhi oleh sedikit,
banyak situasi pasar yang sebenarnya. <span style="background: white;">sesuai
dengan fakta-fakta akan membutuhkan yang terpisah; teori yang sangat rinci
untuk setiap situasi pasar individu, karena masing-masing memiliki
karakteristik tersendiri. Dari teoti alam akan bernilaiberharga untuk proyek
penelitian tertentuwalau nilai umum, nilai umum kecil. Teori-teori yang lebih
umum yang bermanfaat karena mengandung pernyataan yang abstrak ke khusus dan
menemukan elemen yang banyak memiliki kesamaan situasi. <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 14.4pt;">1-2 Ekonomi mikro</span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="longtext" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 14.4pt;">Seperti teori lainnya kebanyakan; ekonomi dibagi menjadi
cabang-cabang dan sub cabang ¬. Cabang-cabang utama ekonomi mikro, yang
merupakan studi tentang tindakan ekonomi individu dan kelompok-kelompok yang
didefinisikan individu, dan makroekonomi, yang merupakan studi agregat luas
seperti total lapangan kerja dan pendapatan nasional. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 14.4pt;"> </span><span class="longtext" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 14.4pt;">Kedua kesepakatan cabang
dengan penentuan harga dan pendapatan menggunakan and.the sumber daya. Namun,
mikroekonomi berkonsentrasi pada analisis harga individu dan pasar, dan alokasi
sumber daya khusus untuk penggunaan tertentu. Dalam teori-teori mikro penentuan
pendapatan di individu tercakup dalam proses penetapan harga umum: Individu,
mendapatkan pendapatan mereka dengan menjual faktor produksi, harga yang
ditentukan dalam cara yang sama seperti semua harga lainnya. Di sisi lain,
tujuan teori makroekonomi secara umum adalah penentuan pendapatan nasional,
pekerjaan sumber daya agregat, dan indeks harga agregat, dengan hanya penekanan
sekunder ditempatkan di atas yang saling keterkaitan antara komponen dari berbagai agregat. </span></div>
</span><span class="longtext"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 14.4pt;">Karena masalah
penetapan harga individu diasumsikan jauh dalam teori makro, hubungan antar
unit individu dan agregat tidak jelas. Kalau, analisis akan diklasifikasikan sebagai
teori mikro. Pada penyederhanaan diperkenalkan oleh agregasi tidak tanpa
imbalan, karena mereka memungkinkan untuk menggambarkan posisi dan kemajuan
ekonomi secara keseluruhan dalam kaitannya dengan agregat sederhana. Ini akan
menjadi mustahil jika penekanan mikro terhadap perilaku individu dan harga
relatif tetap dipertahankan.</span></div>
</span><br />
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<span class="longtext"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="background: white;">Dalam analisis
harga barang yang dibeli atau dijual dianggap sebagai parameter yang diberikan,
besaran yang individu tidak dapat mempengaruhi. </span>Kuantitas barang yang
dibeli dan dijual adalah variabel ditentukan dalam teori ini. Pasar persaingan
sempurna untuk sebuah komoditas tunggal intro ¬ diproduksi. Harga semua
komoditi lainnya diasumsikan untuk diberikan parameter, dan harga komoditas
tersebut, serta volume pembelian dan penjualan, ditampilkan akan ditentukan
oleh tindakan independen dari semua pembeli dan penjual. . teori ekonomi mikro
cukup fleksibel untuk mengizinkan banyak variasi dalam asumsi-asumsi yang
mendasarinya. Bab-bab terakhir mencakup dua aspek penting lain dari
mikroekonomi. Penggunaan penting dari teori adalah untuk melayani sebagai
panduan untuk apa yang seharusnya. Cabang ilmu mikroekonomi yang mencakup
masalah-masalah ini dikenal sebagai ekonomi kesejahteraan dan merupakan subjek.
Tingkat kesesuaian antara teori dan fakta sangat penting dalam ekonomi
kesejahteraan. Jika seseorang tertarik pada deskripsi murni, sebuah perbedaan
antara teori dan fakta akan menunjukkan bahwa teori ini salah untuk tujuan
tertentu. Ketika teori menjadi ideal kesejahteraan, seperti perbedaan mengarah
pada kesimpulan bahwa situasi aktual adalah salah dan harus diperbaiki.
Akhirnya, asumsi dunia yang statis di mana konsumen dan produsen tidak
merencanakan untuk masa depan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.3
Peran Matematika</span><span class="longtext" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Teori-teori dari volume ini
dilemparkan dalam istilah matematika. Matematika bukanlah tujuan itu sendiri,
melainkan satu set alat yang memfasilitasi derivasi dan eksposisi dari teori
ekonomi. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Matematika berguna untuk menerjemahkan argumen verbal ke dalam
bentuk ringkas dan konsisten. Namun, tidak lebih dari ini. Matematika
menyediakan ekonom dengan satu set alat sering kali lebih kuat daripada pidato
biasa; matematika memiliki konsep dan memungkinkan operasi yang tidak setara
verbal dikelola ada. Penggunaan matematika memperbesar tool kit para ekonom dan
memperlebar kisaran kemungkinan kesimpulan dari asumsi awal. </span></div>
<span class="longtext"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Murni analisis verbal adalah tahap pertama dalam sejarah
perkembangan teori ekonomi. Namun, seperti hubungan kuantitatif dirumuskan
dalam meningkatkan jumlah dan sebagai teori menjadi semakin kompleks, murni
analisis verbal menjadi lebih membosankan dan lebih sulit untuk merumuskan
ketetapan. Matematika mendasari hubungan sebagian besar teori awal, meskipun
mereka jarang dibuat eksplisit.Salah satu yang paling serius di antaranya adalah
keterbatasan argumen teoritis ke dua, atau paling banyak tiga, variabel.
Meningkatnya penggunaan alat-alat matematika lain mencerminkan keyakinan bahwa
geometri pesawat tidak memadai untuk alasan ekonomi ketat dalam banyak kasus. </span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kalkulus dan beberapa konsep sederhana sistem
simultan-persamaan matematika are'the alat utama yang digunakan dalam buku ini.</span></div>
</span></span><br />
<br />
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">MARKET EQUILIBRIUM (KESEIMBANGAN PASAR)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span class="hps"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-1</span></u></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></u></span><span class="hps"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ATAS</span></u></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></u></span><span class="hps"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ASUMSI</span></u></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></u></span><span class="hps"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PERSAINGAN</span></u></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></u></span><span class="hps"><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">SEMPURNA<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebuah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pasar</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">komoditi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bersaing sempurna</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">memenuhi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kondisi berikut</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">:</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">menghasilkan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">komoditi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">homogen</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">konsumen</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">adalah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">identik</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">titik</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> pandangan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">penjual</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bahwa tidak ada</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">atau</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kerugian</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yang berhubungan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dengan</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">menjual</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ke</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">konsumen</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">tertentu</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">;</span></span></div>
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<span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">konsumen</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">banyak</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">penjualan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">atau</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pembelian</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">setiap unit</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">individu</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kecil kaitannya</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dengan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">volume</span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">agregat</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">transaksi</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(3)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">konsumen</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">memiliki</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">informasi yang</span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">sempurna</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">tentang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">harga yang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">berlaku</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">tawaran</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">saat ini</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan mereka</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mengambil</span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">setiap</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">peluang untuk</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">meningkatkan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">keuntungan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">utilitas</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">masing-masing</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">;(</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(4)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">masuk</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ke dalam</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">keluar</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pasar</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bebas</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bagi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan</span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">konsumen</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dalam jangka</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">panjang</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<u style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-2 FUNGSI PERMINTAAN</u></div>
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fungsi permintaan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pasar untuk komoditi diperoleh dengan menjumlahkan fungsi
permintaan dari konsumen individu. </span></div>
</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Permintaan pasar</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Permintaan konsumen untuk Q tergantung pada harga Q, harga
seluruh jkomoditas lain, dan pendapatan nya:</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dij = Di (P1, P2,..... Pm, Yi)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Permintaan konsumen untuk Q dapat bervariasi sebagai
akibat dari perubahan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pk (k *j), meskipun Pj tetap tidak
berubah, atau sebagai respons terhadap perubahan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pendapatan, semua harga
tetap konstan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Semua harga lainnya dan pendapatan konsumen diasumsikan konstan
untuk mengisolasi perilaku di pasar </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">j</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">permintaan</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bagi Qj kemudian fungsi
dari P</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">j</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> sendiri:</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span">D</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ij</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> = Dij (</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pj</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">)</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> (6-1)</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span">Kuantitas yang diminta masih tergantung pada harga
komoditas lainnya dan pendapatan konsumen, tetapi variabel ini sekarang
diperlakukan sebagai parameter.Untuk memenuhi pesanan pertama kondisi konsumen
akan bervariasi tuntutannya untuk komoditas selain Q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">sebagai perubahan </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">P</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Variasi ini umumnya
diabaikan dalam analisis berpusat pada pasar untuk Q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i.</span></span></div>
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Menghilangkan </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">komoditi j dalam (6-1),</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span">Di = D</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span lang="EN-US">(p)</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> i = 1, 2, ...</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">n</span></span></div>
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Permintaan agregat untuk Q dengan harga manapun
adalah jumlah kuantitas yang dituntut oleh konsumen n individu dengan harga
bahwa:</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyf2v8TmMPdKXrccDOf62nyF91LM8iydFHsagy7YiVXjR8rM2iMs1xnIpyBciD7WI4C40b1k2QFMtm3O3NiOYa4rT14Nr6uvNPh__KKSTOFAOb-3V9h4I1gsBzEw__YK46M9HFo4-UQT3r/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyf2v8TmMPdKXrccDOf62nyF91LM8iydFHsagy7YiVXjR8rM2iMs1xnIpyBciD7WI4C40b1k2QFMtm3O3NiOYa4rT14Nr6uvNPh__KKSTOFAOb-3V9h4I1gsBzEw__YK46M9HFo4-UQT3r/s1600/cats.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span"></span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dimana D adalah permintaan agregat.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bentuk (6-2) merupakan
hasil dari asumsi bahwa semua harga lain dan pendapatan dari semua konsumen n
adalah konstan.Tuntutan konsumen individu biasanya diasumsikan monoton
penurunan fungsi dari harga, tapi kemungkinan semakin meningkat .</span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam hal konvensional diagram kurva permintaan
agregat adalah jumlah horizontal dari kurva permintaan individu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagian
(a) dan (b) Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-1 merupakan kurva permintaan dari dua konsumen hanya
di pasar yang kompetitif hipotetis. "</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagian
(c) adalah agregat permintaan mereka kurva yang dibangun dengan membiarkan
jarak OL sama dengan jumlah dari jarak ON dan OM.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Produsen Permintaan</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Kurva permintaan output dari seorang
pengusaha individu tampaknya dia sebagai garis horizontal yang
diberikan oleh<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">p = konstan</span></div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kurva
permintaan pasar tidak jumlah horizontal kurva permintaan yang
dihadapi oleh perusahaan-perusahaan individual.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Total pendapatan perusahaan adalah</span></div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">R = pq</span></div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Penerimaan marjinal adalah tingkat di mana total
pendapatan meningkat sebagai hasildari sebuah peningkatan
kecil dalam penjualan. Istilah matematika,</span></div>
<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt; vertical-align: top;">
dR/dq=p</div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><div style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">karena p adalah konstanta. Kurva pendapatan marjinal yang
dihadapi oleh perusahaanindividu identik dengan kurva permintaan nya.</span></div>
<span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</span></span><br />
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-3 FUNGSI PENAWARAN</span></u></b><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #888888; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Periode Sangat Pendek</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span class="apple-style-span">Asumsikan bahwa pengusaha memutuskan setiap pagi
berapa banyak untuk menghasilkan hari itu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">output
keputusan</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">n</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ya
adalah langsung dilaksanakan, dan ia menghabiskan sisa hari mencoba menjual
output di harga tertinggi.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dia tidak bisa meningkatkan produksi di siang
hari dan menjual saham komoditas tertentu.Karena sebuah q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">o</span></sup></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> output telah dihasilkan, biaya marjinal dari
setiap output kurang dari q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span></sup></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span lang="EN-US">adalah nol.</span></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Output tidak dapat ditingkatkan melebihi titik
ini dalam waktu yang sangat singkat, dan biaya marjinal output yang lebih
tinggi dapat dianggap tak terbatas.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kurva biaya marjinal diwakili oleh garis vertikal
pada titik ini.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span class="apple-style-span">Perusahaan ini memaksimalkan keuntungan dengan
menjual kuantitas untuk yang MC =</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">P</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena MC dari setiap output kurang dari q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span></sup></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">adalah
nol dan MC dari setiap output lebih besar dari q</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><sup><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">0</span></sup></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> adalah tidak terbatas, persamaan MC = p tidak
dapat puas, dan perusahaan akan memperluas penjualan ke titik di mana harga
berhenti melebihi MC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Oleh karena itu, akan menjual
seluruh output (yaitu, stok seluruh komoditi) pada harga yang berlaku. "</span></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ini memaksimalkan keuntungan, karena harga yang
berlaku adalah harga tertinggi di mana output dapat dijual.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kuantitas penjualan tidak merespon terhadap
perubahan harga.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Secara umum, fungsi penawaran agregat menyatakan
jumlah yang akan diberikan oleh semua produsen sebagai fungsi dari harga.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karena output dari setiap perusahaan adalah
tetap, penawaran agregat komoditi juga diberikan dan tidak tergantung pada
harga.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kurva penawaran adalah garis vertikal, dan jarak
dari sumbu harga sama dengan jumlah output dari perusahaan-perusahaan
individual.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
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<!--[endif]--><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span><br />
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jangka
Pendek</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;">Fungsi pasokan dari
negara perusahaan yang bersaing sempurna kuantitas yang akan menghasilkan
sebagai fungsi dari harga pasar dan dapat diturunkan dari kondisi orde pertama
untuk memaksimalkan keuntungan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;">Horizontal koordinat sebuah titik pada bagian yang
menaik dari kurva MC sesuai dengan harga yang diberikan mengukur kuantitas
bahwa perusahaan akan memasok dengan harga itu.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;">kurva penawaran jangka
pendek ini perusahaan identik dengan porsi jangka pendek kurva MC-nya yang
terletak di atas kurva AVC nya.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">fungsi
penawaran adalah tidak didefinisikan untuk output kurang dari absis dari
persimpangan yang MC dan kurva AVC.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kuantitas yang ditawarkan akan menjadi nol pada semua
harga kurang dari ordinat dari titik ini.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kurva
penawaran ini perusahaan terdiri dari OA dan SM di Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-2.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
<span class="apple-style-span"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span"> MC</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
pertama perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> jangka-pendek adalah fungsi dari output-nya:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
</span></span><br />
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fungsi </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">penawaran</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> perusahaan diperoleh dari kondisi orde pertama untuk
memaksimalkan keuntungan dengan membiarkan p = </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">M</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">C dan memecahkan (6-3) untuk qi = Si:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span">S</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><sub><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span></sub></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> = S</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><sub><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span></sub></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> (p)</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> untuk p</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> ≥</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">min AVC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: transparent; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></div>
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background: white;">S</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><sub><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span></sub></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> = 0 </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">untuk
p </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">< </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">min AVC</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi
penawaran agregat untuk Q diperoleh dengan menjumlahkan fungsi </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">penwaran</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
individu.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">P</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">enawarann</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> agregat</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nya</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> adalah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kurva penawaran agregat adalah jumlah horizontal kurva
penawaran individu.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<span class="apple-converted-space"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kondisi kedua agar keuntungan maksimum membutuhkan
kurva MC akan meningkat.fungsi penawaran ini perusahaan naik monoton Oleh
karena itu, untuk harga pada atau di atas AVC minimum.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jumlah
horizontal naik monoton fungsi itu sendiri naik monoton, dan dengan demikian
fungsi penawaran agregat jangka pendek memiliki kemiringan positif. "</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Biarkan kurva total biaya menjadi</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
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<span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="apple-converted-space"></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengganti</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">q<sub>i</sub></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">=</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">10</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dalam</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">AVC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">memberikan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">nilai</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bila</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">harga</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kurang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5dolar</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perus</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">haan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">akan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">menemukannya</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">paling</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">menguntungkan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">untuk menghasilkanoutput</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">penawaran</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> ini</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">adalah</span></span><span class="hps"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jangka Panjang</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="hps">Jangka panjang</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">output</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">optimal</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">perusahaan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">ditentukan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">oleh</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">kesetaraan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">harga</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">jangka panjang</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">nol</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">output</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang dihasilkan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dengan harga</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kurang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">AC</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">penawaran</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">jangka panjang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">terdiri</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">bagian</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">jangka panjang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fungsi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">untuk</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">yang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MC</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">melebihi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">AC</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Penurunan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">matematis</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">penawaran</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">agregat</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">jangka panjang</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">mirip</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dengan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">penurunan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">penawaran jangka pendek</span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">MC</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">perusahaan</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">i</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ni</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="hps" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">adalah</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fungsi penawaran agregat ini kemudian diperoleh dengan menambahkan fungsi npenawaran individu dalam (6-5). Dengan
tidak adanya pengaruh eksternal penawran jangka panjang</span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(6-4) fungsi kemiringan positif untuk alasan
yang sama sebagai fungsi penawaran jangka pendek.</span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"><br /></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Ekonomi dan disekonomis</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"> </span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px; text-align: justify;"><br /><span class="apple-style-span">Asumsikan pada umumnya bahwa biaya jangka panjang perusahaan i bergantung pada tingkat output industri serta tingkat output sendiri. "</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcyo0FcbWwscrnRtjhDYd5NcqK2qyUvkS4rOxOOnZqbVcMsLb1pl2HReI0CcyeFys1ixSaaW2-EWA_jimVawHIUtsxT_Fjkk1qPPn_0vgGWZB09DtO_XXuiqtYANrru2HB1YA0lW9fMGlx/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcyo0FcbWwscrnRtjhDYd5NcqK2qyUvkS4rOxOOnZqbVcMsLb1pl2HReI0CcyeFys1ixSaaW2-EWA_jimVawHIUtsxT_Fjkk1qPPn_0vgGWZB09DtO_XXuiqtYANrru2HB1YA0lW9fMGlx/s1600/cats.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dimana Q adalah output dari perusahaan i dan q = </span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">setiap </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">pengusaha menyediakan sebagian kecil dari output
industri dan memaksimalkan keuntungan sehubungan dengan output sendiri pada
asumsi bahwa tingkat keluaran tidak mempengaruhi output industri</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tingkat fungsi keuntungan
adalah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></div>
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;">
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</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">dimana Ri = pq</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">i</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Membedakan <span style="mso-text-raise: -6.0pt; position: relative; top: 6.0pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:14.25pt;height:18pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\TOSHIBA\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="24" src="file:///C:/Users/TOSHIBA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="19" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1028"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1454018962">
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</xml><![endif]--> dengan Q</span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">i</span><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span lang="EN-US">(mempertimbangkan
q konstan),π</span></span><sub><span style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2</span></sub><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> sehubungan dengan q2, dll, dan mengatur derivatif
parsial yang dihasilkan sama denga nol:</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: white; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; vertical-align: top;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b>6</b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b>-</b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b>4 COMMODITY- KESEIMBANGAN PASAR<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">Keseimbangan
Jangka Pendek</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Kekuatan-kekuatan pasar yang menentukan harga dan
kuantitas penjualan dapat dianggap sebagai mewujudkan diri melalui permintaan
agregat dan fungsi penawaran.Kemiringan permintaan fungsi D '(p)] biasanya
negatif.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Kemiringan fungsi penawaran S '(p)] adalah positif dalam
ketiadaan ekonomi eksternal.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">S '(p) akan dianggap positif, kecuali dinyatakan khusus.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Karena
komoditi yang homogen, harga tunggal harus menang.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Kuantitas
yang diminta harus sama dengan kuantitas yang ditawarkan pada harga
ekuilibrium:</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">D (p) - S (p) = 0</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"> (6-8)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Jika persamaan tersebut tidak memiliki beberapa p
= p</span></span><span class="apple-style-span">e</span><span class="apple-style-span"> pembeli dan penjual 'keinginan tidak konsisten:
baik pembeli ingin membeli lebih dari penjual yang memasok, atau penjual yang
memasok lebih dari pembeli ingin membeli.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Persamaan dalam (6-8) memastikan bahwa pembeli
dan penjual keinginan konsisten.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Asumsi bahwa produksi produsen seketika dan tiba
di pasar tanpa output aktual.Pembeli dan penjual mencoba untuk masuk ke dalam
kontrak yang menguntungkan bagi mereka.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Setiap
kali pembeli dan penjual masuk ke dalam kontrak, mereka berdua berhak untuk
recontract dengan orang yang membuat tawaran yang lebih menguntungkan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">Asumsi bahwa konsumen beberapa membuat tawaran awal dan menawarkan
harga dolar p</span><span class="apple-style-span">0</span><span class="apple-style-span"> untuk komoditi
tersebut.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span lang="EN-US">Keseimbangan harga-kuantitas
kombinasi harus memenuhi kedua fungsi permintaan dan penawaran.</span></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ini adalah kombinasi
harga-kuantitas yang keinginan pembeli dan penjual yang konsisten satu sama
lain.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Harga keseimbangan ditentukan dengan menyelesaikan
kondisi kesetimbangan (6-8) untuk p.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sebuah kuantitas
ekuilibrium ditentukan dengan mensubstitusikan harga keseimbangan baik dalam
permintaan atau fungsi penawaran.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Karena keseimbangan
harga-kuantitas com bination ¬ memenuhi kedua kurva permintaan dan kurva
penawaran, operasi di atas setara dengan mencari koordinat titik persimpangan
permintaan dan kurva penawaran.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>Long-Run Equilibrium</b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b> </b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Biaya jangka panjang dan kurva penawaran termasuk
"laba yang normal," yaitu, remunerasi minimum yang diperlukan bagi
perusahaan untuk tetap ada.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ini adalah keuntungan yang menimbulkan kepada
pengusaha sebagai pembayaran untuk layanan manajerial, untuk menyediakan
organisasi, untuk bantalan risiko, dll</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">jika perpotongan kurva permintaan dan kurva penawaran jangka panjang
terjadi pada harga dimana perusahaan dalam industri yang berpenghasilan lebih
dari laba yang normal, pengusaha baru dapat dirangsang untuk masuk.</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Para produsen baru akan menambah pasokan mereka untuk pasokan
yang sudah ada, dan sebagai hasilnya kurva penawaran jangka panjang akan
bergeser ke kanan.</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">produsen
baru akan terus masuk selama mereka dapat membuat keuntungan yang positif, dan
kurva penawaran akan terus bergeser ke kanan sampai persimpangan dengan kurva
permintaan menentukan harga di mana pendatang baru akan mendapatkan keuntungan
nol.</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Beberapa
perusahaan akan menarik diri dari industri, dan penawaran agregat akan
berkurang, kurva penawaran akan bergeser ke kiri.</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Perusahaan akan terus meninggalkan
industri ini sampai persimpangan dari kurva permintaan dengan kurva penawaran
menentukan harga yang kerugian ( keuntungan) adalah nol untuk perusahaan biaya
tertinggi dalam industri.</span><br />
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Permintaan harus sama dengan
pasokan, dan potensi keuntungan pendatang baru harus sama dengan nol untuk
ekuilibrium jangka panjang.</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Fungsi pasokan perusahaan i adalah Si = Sj (p).</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Misalkan n adalah jumlah perusahaan dalam
industri.</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Dengan asumsi
bahwa semua perusahaan yang identik dengan fungsinya biaya mereka, fungsi
penawaran agregat adalah</span><br />
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">S (P) = NSI (p) (6-9) Seperti
sebelumnya, fungsi permintaan agregat</span><br />
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">D = D (p) (6-10)</span><br />
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Selain persamaan permintaan dan
penawaran, ekuilibrium jangka panjang mengharuskan laba sama dengan nol untuk
setiap perusahaan:</span><br />
<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">7Ti = PS, - (S%,) = 0 (6-11</span> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dimana
(D (Si) adalah total biaya jangka panjang perusahaan i untuk output Q = Si =
STN Persamaan (6-11) memerlukan kesetaraan harga dan AC:.. p = (D (Sj) 1Sj
Persamaan (6-8) untuk (6-11) umumnya dapat diselesaikan untuk
variabel-variabel (D, Sj, p, n) Dalam jangka panjang kekuatan persaingan
sempurna tidak hanya menentukan harga dan kuantitas,. tetapi
jumlah perusahaan dalam industri juga.<br />
Argumen ini diilustrasikan pada Gambar. 6-4. Sisi kiri dari diagram
menunjukkan kurva biaya sebuah perusahaan khas atau
"perwakilan". Sisi kanan menunjukkan permintaan pasar dan kurva
penawaran dengan skala horisontal terkompresi. Keseimbangan akhir dari
titik pandang industri adalah di persimpangan kurva permintaan dan penawaran,
dengan ketentuan bahwa keuntungan adalah nol. Dari titik pandang
pengusaha, keseimbangan dicapai saat harga sama dengan MC dan AC. Optimum
dipastikan dengan p = MC, dan nol keuntungan dengan p = AC. Setiap perusahaan
beroperasi pada titik minimum kurva AC dalam ekuilibrium jangka panjang, karena
AC = MC pada titik minimum kurva AC. Perusahaan yang membuat keuntungan
positif dalam situasi yang ditandai dengan kurva supply S (Gbr.
6-4b). perusahaan baru masuk, dan pergeseran kurva penawaran untuk S
'. Jika kurva penawaran telah didefinisikan untuk mencakup semua
persediaan (oleh produsen aktual dan potensial, seperti di S *), perpotongan
kurva permintaan dan penawaran akan menentukan ekuilibrium akhir tanpa
pergeseran. S kurva penawaran diberikan untuk n tetap dalam (6-9). S
* diperoleh dari (6-11) dengan membiarkan AC p minimal sama. The jangka
panjang industri penyediaan horizontal kurva * S juga jangka panjang AC
industri kurva dan kurva jangka panjang nya MC dalam kasus ini. Dalam
Sec. 5-1 itu menunjukkan bahwa fungsi produksi homogen derajat satu
menghasilkan AC konstan = MC untuk harga faktor tetap dan menghasilkan tingkat
keuntungan nol oleh Teorema Euler jika input dibayar nilai produk marjinal
mereka . marjinal mereka . </span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kondisi ini sama
dengan yang untuk industri secarakeseluruhan dalam situasi
yangdigambarkan pada Gambar. 6-4</span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Biaya Diferensial Kondisi dan Sewa</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Asumsikan bahwa ada dua
jenis perusahaan. AC jangka panjang dan kurva</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">MC akan
ditampilkan dalam bagian (a) dan (b) Gamb</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ar 6-5</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Bagian (c) menunjukkan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kurva industri penawaran dan kurva permintaan lima hipotetis. Kurva
penawaranberdasarkan asumsi bahwa ada lima
puluh perusahaan dalam setiap
kategori.Asumsikan bahwa jumlah perusahaan di setiap
kategori tidak
bisa ditingkatkan.Sebagai contoh, jumlah produsen berbiaya
rendah (kategori I)
dapat unalterablydiberikan oleh kuantitas dari beberapa sumber
daya yang
langka seperti tanah subur.Perusahaan baru tidak
bisa masuk kategori I meskipun perusahaan-perusahaan dalam
kategori ini adalah membuat keuntungan.<br />
Pertimbangkan D</span><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4 </span></sub><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> kurva
permintaan. Setiap perusahaan murah menghasilkan output.16 unit, dan masing-masing perusahaan lain menghasilkan output
dari 10 unit. Yang terakhir
ini beroperasi pada titik minimum kurva AC mereka
dan memperoleh keuntungan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">normal</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;">Setiap perusahaan murah mendapatkan satu unit laba NNI di atas normal. Jika kurva permintaan bergeser ke D2, semua perusahaan biaya tinggi (kategori II) akan meninggalkan industri ini, tetapi setiap perusahaan murah akan tetap mendapatkan keuntungan positif yang sama. Mereka akan mendapatkan keuntungan positif bahkan jika kurva permintaan adalah D1. Dengan D3 beberapa, tapi tidak semua, dari perusahaan biaya tinggi akan meninggalkan industri. Mereka yang tersisa akan memperoleh laba normal. Jika kurva permintaan adalah D5, semua perusahaan dalam industri itu akan mendapatkan keuntungan lebih dari normal, dan kelompok ketiga perusahaan (tidak ditampilkan pada Gambar. 6-5) mungkin akan menguntungkan untuk memasuki industri. Perusahaan-perusahaan murah masih akan berada di posisi yang paling menguntungkan. </span><span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span><span style="text-align: justify;">Asumsikan bahwa fungsi total biaya perusahaan perwakilan dalam dua kategori </span><span style="text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tanda minus sebelum akar kuadrat harus
dikesampingkan karena sesuai dengan situasi di mana kedua-order kondisi
perusahaan individu untuk memaksimalkan tidak terpenuhi. Mengganti SLI
untuk q1i, kurva penawaran nya adalah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Mengatur D = S dan pemecahan untuk p dan S memberikan p = 13, S =
750.t Jika p = 13, setiap perusahaan akan menghasilkan 15 unit dengan biaya
rata-rata 7 dolar. Perusahaan-perusahaan biaya tinggi tidak menghasilkan apa-apa. Jumlah total
adalah, sebagaimana ditentukan dengan menyelesaikan hubungan permintaan dan
penawaran, (50) (15) = 750 unit. Setiap perusahaan murah mendapatkan
sebuah pro5t 90-dolar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>6-5 APLIKASI ATAS
PERPAJAKAN</b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 48px;"><span class="apple-style-span"> Sebuah pajak penjualan umumnya perubahan tingkat output optimal pengusaha individu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Ini menggeser kurva penawaran individu dan karena itu juga kurva penawaran agregat.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Hal ini mengubah kombinasi keseimbangan harga-kuantitas.Penjualan valorem pajak baik tertentu atau iklan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Pajak khusus dinyatakan dalam hal jumlah dolar yang pengusaha harus membayar per unit terjual.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">Sebuah pajak ad valorem dinyatakan dalam bentuk persentase dari harga penjualan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="line-height: 24px; text-indent: 48px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 48px;"><br /><span class="apple-style-span">Asumsikan bahwa pajak penjualan pajak tertentu dolar ton per unit.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Biaya total pengusaha representatif</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; vertical-align: top;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"> </span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pasokan agregat merupakan fungsi dari harga
bersih (p - t) yang diterima oleh penjual.Jika, dengan tidak adanya pajak
penjualan, penawaran agregat adalah 'unit pada harga P' dolar, pengusaha akan memasok jumlah yang sama
S 'dengan pajak penjualan I dolar jika harga yang dibayar oleh konsumen adalah
p' + 1</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dolar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hal ini setara dengan pergeseran vertikal ke atas
kurva penawaran dengan 1 dollar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pengusaha bersedia untuk memasok kurang dari
sebelumnya di setiap harga.</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam rangka untuk menentukan kombinasi
keseimbangan harga-kuantitas, permintaan ditetapkan sama untuk memasok,</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span class="apple-style-span"> D (p) - S (p - t) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"> dan memecahkan
untuk p.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #888888; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Membiarkan tarif pajak ad valorem menjadi 100V persen dari harga
penjualan. Untuk-al biaya <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pasokan agregat adalah fungsi dari harga bersih, dan pajak
penjualan melibatkan pergeseran ke atas kurva penawaran yang sebanding dengan
tetangga: dari kurva penawaran asli di atas sumbu kuantitas. Keseimbangan
kombinasi kuantitas harga lagi ditentukan dengan menetapkan permintaan sama
dengan penawaran. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Biarkan industri ini terdiri dari 100 perusahaan dengan fungsi biaya
identik:<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Maka fungsi penawaran agregat adalah <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
S=0 jika
p<1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> S=500p-500 jika p≥1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> naiknya
harga dan kuantitas yang dijual berkurang sebagai akibat dari
pajak. Kenaikan harga kurang dari jumlah pajak. Peningkatan 50 persen
dalam harga menyatakan bahwa bagian dari pajak unit yang diteruskan kepada
konsumen, sisa 40 sen adalah beban pengusaha. Contoh digambarkan pada
Gambar. 6-6. Kurva penawaran adalah S sebelum dan S 'setelah pajak
dikenakan. Pajak ini 90 sen, jarak vertikal antara S dan S '. Harga
yang dibayarkan naik dari 5 dolar sampai 5,50, dan harga yang diterima oleh
para pengusaha jatuh ke 4,60. Pembaca dapat memverifikasi bahwa proporsi
pajak unit diteruskan kepada konsumen adalah lebih besar, lebih kecil adalah
lereng (aljabar) dari kurva permintaan dan penawaran. ceteris paribus,
harga bervariasi secara langsung, dan kuantitas berbanding terbalik dengan
tarif pajak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><b>6-6 FAKTOR-KESEIMBANGAN
PASAR<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><br />
</b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <b>Fungsi Permintaan</b> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> Kombinasi
input optimum seorang pengusaha rasional yang memenuhi kondisi bahwa harga tiap
input sama dengan nilai dari MP. Kondisi orde pertama untuk memaksimalkan
keuntungan diselesaikan di Sec. 4-3 untuk mendapatkan masukan perusahaan
tuntutan sebagai fungsi dari harga input dan harga produk. Untuk kasus
satu-output-dua-input: <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> D<sub>i1</sub>=D<sub>i1</sub>(r1,r2,p)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">D<sub>i2</sub>=D<sub>i2</sub>(r1,r2,p) <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>dimana D<sub>1i</sub> permintaan perusahaan i input. Dengan asumsi bahwa semua harga
lain konstan, dan mengabaikan subskrip input, fungsi permintaan perusahaan i
untuk input tertentu <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> Di
= D<sub>i</sub> (r) <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>dimana r adalah harga input. Fungsi permintaan agregat diperoleh
dengan menjumlahkan fungsi permintaan individu. Jika ada perusahaan m
menuntut input,<br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
Sec. 4-3 itu menunjukkan bahwa kurva permintaan masukan individu selalu
negatif miring. Oleh karena itu, kurva permintaan agregat masukan juga
selalu<br />
miringa negatif, yaitu <!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
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<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Fungsi Penawaran</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> Masukan
baik primer atau diproduksi. Diproduksi input adalah output dari beberapa
perusahaan lain. Fungsi penyediaan input yang dihasilkan adalah fungsi
penawaran agregat dari perusahaan yang memproduksinya. fungsi tersebut
diturunkan dalam Sec.4-3. prosedur yang berbeda digunakan untuk
nonproduced faktor seperti tenaga kerja, yang biasanya diasumsikan dalam
kepemilikan konsumen yang menjualnya kepada produsen untuk memperoleh
penghasilan untuk membeli komoditi. Kadang-kadang diasumsikan bahwa
konsumen akan menjual saham mereka di seluruh </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">apapun harga pasar
mungkin berlaku.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam hal ini fungsi penawaran faktor adalah garis
lurus vertikal dengan absis sama dengan saham faktor agregat.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kasus yang lebih
menarik adalah satu di mana konsumen utilitas keuntungan dari mempertahankan
sebagian atau seluruh saham faktor mereka.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Untuk kasus tenaga kerja diasumsikan di Sec.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">2-4 bahwa
utilitas adalah fungsi dari waktu luang dan penghasilan:</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> U
= g (T - W, y)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">dimana T adalah
jumlah waktu yang tersedia (panjang periode yang fungsi utilitas yang
ditentukan) dan W jumlah pekerjaan yang dilakukan dalam bentuk jam.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa
individu-memaksimalkan utilitas mengalokasikan waktunya antara kerja dan waktu
luang dengan cara :</span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> <!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:36pt;height:35.25pt' o:ole="">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="47" src="file:///C:/Users/TOSHIBA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="48" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">di mana r adalah
tingkat upah dan gi adalah turunan parsial dari fungsi utilitas sehubungan
dengan argumen engan nya.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">The
gi's bergantung pada pendapatan dan jumlah pekerjaan yang dilakukan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Sejak rw
y =, (13/06) hanya berisi variabel r dan W. Solving (6-13) untuk W dan setting
W = Si, pasokan tenaga kerja fungsi individu i adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"> Si = Si (r)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background: #EBEFF9;">Fungsi penawaran
menyatakan jumlah pekerjaan yang individu bersedia untuk melakukan sebagai
fungsi dari tingkat upah.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: #EBEFF9;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Fungsi penawaran agregat diperoleh dengan menjumlahkan
fungsi pasokan individu.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Jika ada n di-dividuals yang bersedia untuk memasok
tenaga kerja di beberapa tingkat upah, fungsi penawaran agregat adalah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>Pasar Equilibrium</b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Mengingat fungsi
permintaan dan penawaran untuk input seni keseimbangan harga-kuantitas
kombinasi ditentukan dengan menerapkan kondisi ekuilibrium D = S.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Equilibrium tercapai
hanya bila kuantitas yang diminta sama dengan jumlah yang disediakan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Seperti di pasar produk,
peserta tidak dapat meningkatkan posisinya dengan recontracting setelah
keseimbangan telah dicapai.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Karena harga-kuantitas keseimbangan kombinasi
harus terletak pada kedua kurva permintaan dan penawaran</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> , </span><span class="apple-style-span">juga
harus memenuhi kesetimbangan produsen kondisi dari mana kurva permintaan
berasal.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Harga ekuilibrium input selalu sama dengan nilai produk
marginal tersebut; yaitu, nilai dolar yang dihabiskan untuk masukan marjinal
adalah sama digunakan setiap '.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">kesetaraan ini merupakan kondisi yang diperlukan untuk
memaksimalkan keuntungan, dan setiap pengusaha bisa mencapai titik optimal di
pasar yang bersaing sempurna jika kedua-perintahnya kondisi untuk memaksimalkan
terpenuhi.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>6-7 EKSISTENSI DAN KEUNIKAN DARI KESEIMBANGAN</b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">EKSISTENSI</span></b></span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> Tiga
situasi di mana kurva penawaran dan permintaan memiliki gunanya umum
digambarkan pada Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">6-7.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Pasokan melebihi permintaan pada setiap harga
non-negatif untuk kasus digambarkan pada Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">6-7a.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Tidak ada keseimbangan
sesuai dengan definisi yang diberikan di atas.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Definisi keseimbangan
mudah diperluas untuk menutup kasus ini.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Biarkan p = 0 jika S
(0)> D (0).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Seorang yang baik bebas memiliki harga nol dan
ditandai oleh kelebihan pasokan lebih dari permintaan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Konsumen bisa mendapatkan
semua yang mereka inginkan untuk apa-apa.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Udara dan air dapat
dianggap barang bebas.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Sampai air titik kritis mungkin berada di sana untuk
mengambil.Selain ini pemurnian titik dan transportasi dapat menjadi diperlukan
dan mengarah pada harga penawaran yang positif.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">6-7b
mencakup kasus di mana harga permintaan kurang dari harga penawaran pada setiap
output negatif. Jumlah yang konsumen bersedia untuk membayar tidak memadai
untuk mengkompensasi produsen.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Pasar kesetimbangan tidak ada oleh definisi
sejauh diberikan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Sekali lagi adalah mungkin untuk memperluas
definisi untuk menutupi kasus-kasus tersebut.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Sebuah keseimbangan ada dengan nol output jika
harga penawaran melebihi harga permintaan untuk semua keluaran negatif.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Hal ini teknologi memungkinkan untuk memproduksi
solid-gold kotak makan siang sekolah, tetapi tidak diproduksi karena orangtua
tidak bersedia membayar cukup untuk memungkinkan produsen untuk menutupi biaya
mereka.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Kasus-kasus bebas-baik dan nol-produksi yang
berarti.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Mereka dilindungi oleh metode umum yang diuraikan dalam
Bab.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">10.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Banyak
kasus lain di mana kesetimbangan tidak bisa dicapai adalah hasil dari
spesifikasi model miskin.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika kasus tersebut ditemukan, asumsi dari
produser mereka di bawah-berbaring dan model konsumen harus diubah dalam rangka
memberikan kerangka yang berarti untuk analisis.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Gambar 6-7c memberikan contoh.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Permintaan melebihi penawaran untuk setiap harga,
dan tidak ada yang berarti antar pretation ¬ yang dapat ditempatkan pada
situasi ini.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></div>
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<b> Keunikan </b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Ada
kemungkinan bahwa lebih dari satu ekuilibrium yaitu, bahwa permintaan dan
penawaran adalah sama di lebih dari satu kombinasi harga-kuantitas
negatif. Titik A dan B pada Gambar. 6-8a adalah kesetimbangan
keduanya. Kurva permintaan miring ke bawah di mode normal, tetapi kurva
penawaran tikungan kembali sebagai kenaikan harga. Kuantitas adalah fungsi
nilai-tunggal harga, namun harga tidak fungsi-nilai tunggal kuantitas. Beberapa
ekonom telah menemukan bukti bahwa "terbelakang-membungkuk" kurva
penawaran ada untuk pasar tenaga kerja di beberapa negara
berkembang. Kurva penawaran mempunyai kemiringan positif pada tingkat upah
yang relatif rendah, dan peningkatan tingkat upah menumbuhkan peningkatan
pasokan tenaga kerja. Namun, karena tingkat upah terus meningkat dan
pendapatan masing-masing meningkat pekerja, titik dicapai di mana para pekerja
lebih memilih liburan untuk pendapatan lebih banyak. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Biarkan 3 menjadi perbedaan di lereng kurva permintaan dan penawaran: 8
= D '(p) - S' (p). Jika kurva permintaan memiliki kemiringan negatif
seluruh dan kurva penawaran kemiringan positif seluruh, 3 <0 untuk semua
harga dan tidak bisa ada lebih dari satu titik keseimbangan. Jika 8 <0
pada harga ekuilibrium ° p, permintaan akan lebih kecil dari penawaran pada
harga yang sedikit lebih tinggi daripada p ° dan akan lebih besar daripada
suplai pada harga yang sedikit lebih rendah daripada ° p. Selama 5 <0
kurva permintaan akan tetap di sebelah kiri kurva penawaran dengan harga di
atas p ° dan ke kanan dengan harga di bawah ° p. Oleh karena itu, tidak
akan ada titik keseimbangan kedua. Argumen yang sama dapat digunakan untuk
membuktikan bahwa tidak bisa lebih dari satu titik ekuilibrium jika 5> 0
seluruh. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Dalam Gambar. 6-8a 5 <0 untuk keseimbangan titik A. Pada B kurva
permintaan dan penawaran keduanya negatif miring. Kurva permintaan lebih
tajam miring dari kurva penawaran dan 3> 0 pada Bt Empat titik ekuilibrium
yang ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 6-8b. Kurva penawaran memiliki
kemiringan negatif seluruh, mencerminkan ekonomi eksternal. Nilai dari 5
yang negatif pada kesetimbangan titik A, positif pada B, nol di C, dan negatif
pada E. Secara umum, mengabaikan titik ekuilibrium di mana 5 = 0, 8 harus
alternatif dalam tanda pada titik-titik ekuilibrium yang
berdekatan. Equilibrium poin dengan 5 = 0 mungkin terletak antara atau
pada kedua sisi dari titik-titik dengan tanda bergantian. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Akan ada berbagai titik ekuilibrium dengan 3 = 0 jika kurva permintaan
dan penawaran yang bertepatan untuk seluruh atau sebagian dari panjang
mereka. Kasus seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar. 6-8c. Di sini,
kuantitas ekuilibrium adalah unik, tetapi setiap harga dari ° p melalui p (l)
adalah harga ekuilibrium. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>6-8 STABILITAS DARI KESETIMBANGAN</b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Keseimbangan
harga dan kuantitas ditentukan oleh persamaan permintaan dan
penawaran. Equilibrium dicirikan oleh persetujuan pembeli dan penjual dalam
status quo: tidak ada peserta pasar memiliki insentif untuk mengubah
perilakunya. Namun, keberadaan titik ekuilibrium tidak menjamin bahwa itu
akan tercapai. Tidak ada jaminan bahwa harga keseimbangan akan dibentuk
jika pasar tidak dalam ekuilibrium ketika melakukan kontrak dimulai. Juga
tidak ada alasan untuk mengasumsikan bahwa harga awal akan terjadi menjadi
harga ekuilibrium. Selain itu, perubahan preferensi konsumen umumnya akan
menggeser kurva permintaan, dan inovasi akan menggeser kurva penawaran. Kedua
faktor cenderung mengganggu situasi keseimbangan mapan.Perubahan ini
mendefinisikan keseimbangan baru, tapi ada lagi ada jaminan bahwa hal itu akan
tercapai. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Secara umum, gangguan menunjukkan situasi di mana harga yang sebenarnya
berbeda dari harga keseimbangan. Sebuah keseimbangan stabil jika hasil
gangguan dalam kembali ke keseimbangan dan tidak stabil jika tidak.
" Ini secara implisit diasumsikan dalam diskusi tentang keseimbangan
dalam Sec. 6-4 bahwa pasar equilibrium stabil. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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height:154.75pt;z-index:251687936' o:connectortype="straight"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 208px; margin-left: 56px; margin-top: 465px; mso-ignore: vglayout; position: absolute; width: 3px; z-index: 251687936;"><img height="208" src="file:///C:/Users/TOSHIBA/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="3" /></span><!--[endif]--></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stabilitas Statis</span></span></b><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">gangguan biasanya membuat proses penyesuaian di
pasar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Sebagai contoh, jika harga aktual lebih kecil dari harga
ekuilibrium, penyesuaian dapat terdiri dari beberapa pembeli menaikkan tawaran
mereka untuk komoditi tersebut.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Statis abstrak * analisis dari jalur saat proses
penyesuaian dan hanya mempertimbangkan sifat dari perubahan, yaitu, apakah itu
ke arah, atau menjauh dari, keseimbangan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Menetapkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">E (p) = D (p) - S (p)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">sebagai kelebihan permintaan pada harga p.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6-9 kelebihan permintaan positif pada harga p ',
negatif pada harga p (').</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Stabilitas kondisi berasal dari asumsi tentang
perilaku pasar pembeli dan penjual.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kondisi stabilitas
Walrasian didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa pembeli cenderung menaikkan tawaran
mereka jika permintaan berlebih adalah positif dan penjual cenderung menurunkan
harga mereka jika itu negatif.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika asumsi ini benar perilaku, pasar stabil jika
kenaikan harga berkurang permintaan berlebih, "yaitu jika</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivMNo077w7fENxjFntvr4wiOTK96vRR8qbbVkWwDbnEAa2R2b497eO5J8Il4ufzUYg11dnQb7wLtw8eQ9u4pzxyd6bC255cqPWtsYrlAPuw58w5QokqH6cLhUs8hBP9_fHyp6jlhh5RHKP/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivMNo077w7fENxjFntvr4wiOTK96vRR8qbbVkWwDbnEAa2R2b497eO5J8Il4ufzUYg11dnQb7wLtw8eQ9u4pzxyd6bC255cqPWtsYrlAPuw58w5QokqH6cLhUs8hBP9_fHyp6jlhh5RHKP/s1600/cats.jpg" height="188" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> Kondisi
ini dipenuhi secara otomatis jika kurva permintaan mempunyai kemiringan negatif
dan kurva penawaran memiliki kemiringan positif.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika keduanya kemiringan positif, kurva penawaran
harus datar dari kurva permintaan [S-`(q) <D-` (q)] untuk memenuhi (6-14).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika keduanya negatif kemiringan, kurva penawaran
harus lebih curam daripada kurva permintaan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Kurva penawaran kemiringan negatif digambarkan
dalam Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">6-8b menghasilkan empat titik ekuilibrium.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Titik-titik
ekuilibrium berturut-turut A, B, dan E secara bergantian stabil dan tidak
stabil dengan asumsi perilaku Walrasian (6-14).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Kurva
penawaran lebih curam daripada kurva permintaan di A, dan kesetimbangan stabil
pada saat ini.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">B persimpangan lain dapat eksis hanya jika kurva
penawaran menjadi kurang curam daripada kurva permintaan, B karena itu tidak
stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">Dengan alasan yang
sama, D lagi stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Kondisi stabilitas (6-14) tidak cukup untuk
menutup ekuilibrium permintaan Kelebihan titik C positif dengan harga kurang
dari p, dan juga dengan harga lebih tinggi dari p,.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Harga akan cenderung naik untuk penyimpangan ke
bawah atau ke atas dari keseimbangan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Point C digolongkan sebagai semistable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><b>Stabilitas
Dinamis: Penyesuaian tertinggal</b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Asumsi bahwa kelebihan permintaan
yang positif cenderung meningkatkan harga dapat dimodelkan dalam berbagai
cara. Sebuah model matematika yang umum digunakan adalah </span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">p<sub>1</sub>-p<sub>t-1</sub>=kE(p<sub>t-1</sub>) (6-15)<br />
</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dimana
p, adalah harga pada periode t dan k adalah sebuah konstanta positif.Persamaan
(6-15) menyatakan satu jenis perilaku yang mungkin bagi pembeli dan penjual. Dengan
asumsi bahwa ada permintaan positif
berlebih E (p,-t) pada periode (t - 1), ia menyatakan asumsi bahwa permintaan
berlebih E (p, -1) mendorong pembeli untuk penawaran harga <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">p<sub>1</sub>-p<sub>t-1</sub>=kE(p<sub>t-1</sub>) >p<sub>t-1</sub></span> pada periode
berikutnya.Asumsikan bahwa fungsi permintaan dan penawaran <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> D<sub>1</sub>
= ap<sub>1</sub> + b (6-16) <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> S<sub>t</sub> =Ap<sub>t</sub> + B (6-17)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Kelebihan permintaan pada periode (t - 1)
adalah <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> E
(p<sub>t-1</sub>) = (a - A) p<sub>t-1</sub> + b - B <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Mengganti ini ke dalam (6-15), <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> p<sub>t</sub>-p<sub>t-1</sub>
= k[ (a - A) p<sub>t-1</sub> + b – B] <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>dan p<sub>t-1</sub> = [1 + k
(a - A) ]p<sub>t-1</sub> + k (b - B)
(6-18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Perbedaan orde pertama persamaan (6-18)
menggambarkan alur waktu harga atas dasar asumsi perilaku yang terkandung
dalam (6-15). Mengingat kondisi awal p = po saat t = 0, solusinya
adalah <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span> p<sub>1</sub> = (po – p<sub>e</sub>) [1 + k (a - A) '+ p<sub>e</sub>
(6-19) <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
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adalah harga ekuilibrium ditentukan dari (6-16) dan (6-17) dengan menetapkan D<sub>t</sub>
– S<sub>t</sub> = 0 dan penyelesaian untuk p<sub>e</sub> = p<sub>t</sub>. kesetimbangan
stabil jika tingkat harga yang sebenarnya mendekati tingkat ekuilibrium dengan
meningkatnya t. Tingkat harga menyatu tanpa osilasi jika <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;">0 <1 + k (a - A) <1. Sisi kanan dari ketimpangan ini berlaku jika </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"><br /></span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"> a <A (6-20) </span><span style="line-height: 18.399999618530273px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kondisi
(6-20) secara otomatis dipenuhi jika kurva penawaran mempunyai kemiringan
positif (A> 0).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tingkat harga bergerak naik dari waktu ke waktu
jika harga awal kurang dari harga keseimbangan dan ke bawah jika lebih besar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika kemiringan kurva penawaran adalah negatif,
stabilitas mensyaratkan bahwa kemiringan kurva permintaan (Ila) menjadi aljabar
lebih besar dari kemiringan kurva penawaran (1 / A), yaitu kurva penawaran
harus memotong kurva permintaan dari</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">di atas.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Equilibrium tidak stabil jika kurva penawaran
memotong kurva permintaan dari bawah, dan setiap penyimpangan dari
kesetimbangan diikuti oleh peningkatan penyimpangan dari itu.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika k adalah cukup besar dan sebuah - A adalah
negatif, 1 + k (a - A) juga negatif, dan tingkat harga harus berosilasi dari
waktu ke waktu '.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Stabilitas dinamis keseimbangan dapat dianalisis
diagram dalam mode berikut.Merencanakan harga sepanjang sumbu horisontal, garis
putus-putus pada Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">6-10a merupakan fungsi permintaan berlebih.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan asumsi bahwa k <1, garis padat merupakan KE (p, _1).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Garis
45 derajat pada Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6-10b merupakan tempat kedudukan titik yang
didefinisikan dengan p, p =, </span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fungsi</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">diperoleh dengan menambahkan koordinat (sesuai
dengan absis yang sama) dari garis padat dalam Gambar. 6-10a dan 6-10b</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Hasilnya akan ditampilkan pada Gambar. 6-10c.Asumsikan
bahwa harga awal po. Harga pada periode berikutnya, p, diberikan oleh
ordinat dari titik pada f (p, -,) secara langsung di atas po. Untuk
menghitung harga di periode berikutnya, p, akan dipindahkan ke sumbu horisontal
dengan menggambar garis horizontal dari K ke L. L terletak di garis 45 derajat,
dan setiap titik absis dari pada itu sama ordinat nya. P2 harga ditemukan
oleh bergerak vertikal untuk M pada f (l, p).Semua harga berikutnya ditemukan
dengan cara ini. Tingkat harga menyatu dalam contoh ini ke harga
ekuilibrium yang diberikan oleh persimpangan dari f (p, -,). Dan garis 45
derajat ' Stabilitas keseimbangan tergantung pada kemiringan fungsi
permintaan kelebihan dan besarnya k. Jika fungsi permintaan berlebih pada
Gambar. 6-10a adalah kemiringan positif, fungsi f (p, -,) akan memotong
garis 45 derajat dari bawah, dan keseimbangan akan stabil. Jika fungsi
permintaan kelebihan yang dimiliki kemiringan negatif, seperti pada Gambar. 6-10a,
tapi k sangat besar, f (p, -,) akan memiliki kemiringan negatif, dan tingkat
harga akan berosilasi. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Pendekatan statis dan dinamis terhadap stabilitas pada dasarnya
berbeda. stabilitas statis tidak perlu menyiratkan stabilitas dinamis,
tetapi stabilitas dinamis menyiratkan stabilitas statis. Alasan untuk
perbedaan ini adalah bahwa analisis dinamik adalah alat yang lebih inklusif
untuk menyelidiki sifat kesetimbangan. kekhawatiran analisis statik
sendiri hanya dengan arah penyesuaian dan mengabaikan besarnya penyesuaian dari
waktu ke waktu. <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>Membiarkan<br />
D<sub>t</sub>
=- 0.5p<sub>t</sub>+ 100<br />
S<sub>t</sub>
=- 0.1p<sub>t</sub> +50 <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>dan biarkan k = 6 kesetimbangan
stabil dalam arti statis Walrasian jika D '(p) - S' (p) <0. Mengganti
dari fungsi permintaan dan penawaran, - 0,5 - (-0,1) -0,4 <0. stabilitas
dinamis membutuhkan -1 <1 + k (a - A) <1. Substituting nilai yang
tepat memberikan <br />
1
+ k (a - A) = -1,4 <span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span>dan ketidaksetaraan kiri tidak diperlukan. Pasar akan menunjukkan
osilasi ledakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Stabilitas Dinamis: Penyesuaian Continuous <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Persamaan (6-15) menjelaskan proses penyesuaian
harga yang terjadi selama interval diskrit waktu . Suatu pendekatan
alternatif yang didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa penyesuaian berlangsung terus
menerus. Persamaan (6-15) kemudian digantikan oleh </span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">dimana
pe adalah harga ekuilibrium, mengikuti dari definisi derivatif.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Dalam batas, sebagai p -), p,, (23/06) memegang
tepat, dan untuk penyimpangan kecil dari Pe pendekatan p mungkin diharapkan
untuk menjadi baik.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Mengganti E (Pe) = 0, memecahkan (6-23) untuk E
(p), dan menggantikannya dengan hasil di sisi kanan (6-21),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">yang merupakan persamaan linier karena E '(p,),
turunan dari permintaan berlebih dievaluasi di pe, adalah sebuah konstanta.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Akar
persamaan karakteristik (berlaku di lingkungan p,) adalah KE '(pe).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jadi,
jika fungsi permintaan kelebihan kemiringan negatif di sekitar p, kesetimbangan
secara lokal stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Kondisi statis dan dinamis lagi adalah identik.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Keberadaan stabilitas global sering dapat
dipastikan dengan teknik yang dikenal sebagai metode langsung Liapunov's.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Pertama
menemukan fungsi Liapunov, V (p), sehingga V (p)> 0 jika p 3-4 - pe dan V
(p,) = 0.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika dVIdt negatif jika p; 4 hal, solusi kesetimbangan
secara global stabil '.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi Liapunov tepat sering
disediakan oleh</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> V
(p) = (P – p<sub>e</sub>)<sup>2</sup> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">jarak kuadrat dari titik p yang sebenarnya pada
waktu t dari titik keseimbangan.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Untuk ilustrasi, mempertimbangkan permintaan b/p fungsi
E nonlinier kelebihan - di mana pe = b/a dengan a, b> 0, dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
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<span class="apple-style-span">yang
negatif untuk semua pe p sejak k,, dan p adalah positif.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Dengan demikian, keseimbangan untuk model ini
adalah global stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>6-9 KESEIMBANGAN
DINAMIS DENGAN PENYESUAIAN TERTINGGAL</b></span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">fungsi pasokan Produsen 'menunjukkan bagaimana
mereka menyesuaikan output mereka untuk harga yang berlaku.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Sejak
produksi membutuhkan waktu, penyesuaian mungkin tidak seketika, tetapi dapat
menjadi jelas di pasar hanya setelah jangka waktu tertentu.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">komoditas
pertanian sering memberikan contoh yang baik pasokan tertinggal.rencana
produksi yang dibuat setelah panen.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Output sesuai ¬ ing untuk produksi rencana ini muncul di
pasar setahun kemudian.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Asumsikan bahwa fungsi permintaan dan penawaran</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> D<sub>t</sub>
= ap<sub>t</sub> + b
(6-24)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> S<sub>t</sub>
= Ap<sub>t-1</sub> + B (6-25)</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pasar
berada dalam kesetimbangan dinamis jika harga tetap tidak berubah dari waktu ke
waktu, yaitu, jika p, = p, -,.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Menyamakan (6-24) dan (6-25) menghasilkan harga p
ekuilibrium yang unik, = (B - b) l (a - A).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kuantitas yang
diminta dalam periode apapun tergantung pada harga di masa itu, tetapi
kuantitas yang ditawarkan tergantung pada harga pada periode sebelumnya.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Diasumsikan bahwa
kuantitas yang ditawarkan pada periode I adalah selalu sama dengan jumlah yang
diminta dalam periode tersebut, yaitu p, menyesuaikan untuk membawa tentang
persamaan D, dan S, sesegera S. muncul di pasar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: #EBEFF9; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ini berarti bahwa
tidak ada produser yang tersisa dengan saham yang tidak terjual dan tidak ada
konsumen dengan permintaan yang tidak terpenuhi.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background: #EBEFF9; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Oleh karena itu</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
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<span class="hps">Solusi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">(</span><span class="apple-style-span">27/06)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">menjelaskan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">jalan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">harga</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">sebagai fungsi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">waktu</span><span class="apple-style-span">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">Beberapa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">waktu yang sesingkat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">jalan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">diilustrasikan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">dalam</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">Gambar</span><span class="apple-style-span">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">6</span><span class="atn">-</span><span class="apple-style-span">11a</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">dan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">6-11</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">b.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="hps">Asumsikan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">bahwa</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">pasokan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">awal</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">tidak</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">sama dengan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">jumlah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">kesetimbangan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">sebagai akibat</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">dari</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">gangguan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">seperti</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">kekeringan</span><span class="apple-style-span">.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">Biarkan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">qo</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">pasokan</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">awal</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">yang sama</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="hps">pada Gambar</span><span class="apple-style-span">.</span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span">...<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6-11a.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Harga awal terkait po.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsumen permintaan poNfo, dan jumlah ini sama dengan
penawaran awal.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Po harga mendorong pengusaha untuk memasok pon
kuantitas, pada periode berikutnya.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Harga jatuh cepat ke pl.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kuantitas yang
diminta kemudian plMl (yang sama pON1, kuantitas yang ditawarkan dalam periode
tersebut).Pada periode berikutnya p harga, menyebabkan pasokan p, N..</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Proses ini terus
berlanjut tanpa batas waktu, menghasilkan pola sarang laba-laba.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Berfluktuasi tingkat
harga, tetapi menyatu ke tingkat ekuilibrium ditunjukkan oleh perpotongan kurva
permintaan dan penawaran.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mekanisme yang sama beroperasi pada Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6-11b, namun
fluktuasi harga cenderung menjadi lebih besar dan lebih besar: pasar dikenakan
osilasi peledak.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Pasar dinamis stabil jika p, - p, sebagai t Jika
nilai mutlak kecerdasan tersebut (Ala) kurang dari satu, istilah pertama di
sebelah kanan (27/06) akan lenyap sebagai t ---> -,dan pasar akan secara
dinamis stabil.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika lereng permintaan (1 / a) dan kurva penawaran 0 /
A) memiliki tanda yang berlawanan, harga akan berosilasi tentang tingkat harga
ekuilibrium.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika kemiringan kurva permintaan mempunyai nilai absolut
lebih kecil dari kemiringan kurva penawaran, 111al <1/JAI, osilasi akan
penurunan amplitudo, dan pasar secara dinamis stabil seperti ditunjukkan pada
Gambar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6-11a.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika kemiringan kurva
permintaan mempunyai nilai absolut lebih besar daripada kemiringan kurva
penawaran, 1/tai> 1/JAS, osilasi akan meningkat dalam amplitudo, dan pasar
secara dinamis tidak stabil seperti ditunjukkan pada Gambar.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6-11b.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Akhirnya, jika lereng
permintaan dan kurva penawaran adalah sama dalam nilai mutlak, 111al = Ojai,
osilasi akan memiliki amplitudo konstan, dan pasar secara dinamis tidak stabil.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika
permintaan dan penawaran kemiringan kurva dalam arah yang sama, Ala adalah positif,
dan tingkat harga tidak akan berosilasi, tetapi baik akan meningkatkan atau
menurunkan terus-menerus.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kondisi sama terus
seperti di atas: harga akan konvergen ke nilai ekuilibrium apabila kurva
permintaan mempunyai kemiringan absolut lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan kurva
penawaran (Gambar 6-12), dan akan menyimpang di salah satu arah ke atas atau ke
bawah jika kurva permintaan telah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">kemiringan yang lebih
besar mutlak.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjV7ad_OWimOUyqvtJ0wMmsSmJmlV_ykta1mNKquj7LkNXnw8uJf-Aqn509IzFq2RXPlFlaPVtDUy_y4cP8ZcAgYYez-Z6mJb1cVAXMMQd6KJAdEXgEPaNjG6zttSC3nJeUYyPqf80_ai_m/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjV7ad_OWimOUyqvtJ0wMmsSmJmlV_ykta1mNKquj7LkNXnw8uJf-Aqn509IzFq2RXPlFlaPVtDUy_y4cP8ZcAgYYez-Z6mJb1cVAXMMQd6KJAdEXgEPaNjG6zttSC3nJeUYyPqf80_ai_m/s1600/cats.jpg" /></a><br />
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b>6-10 SEBUAH FUTURES MARKET</b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> harapan pemerintah untuk harga di masa depan
dapat mengakibatkan transaksi berjangka-pasar.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Diasumsikan
di sini bahwa harapan adalah identik dalam arti bahwa setiap orang mengharapkan
bahwa harga di masa depan akan menjadi salah satu nilai n (pl_., P ".) Dengan
probabilitas masing-masing (vi,..., V.).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-color: #ebeff9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">Dalam rangka untuk menekankan bahwa pasar
berjangka tidak memerlukan beberapa peserta yang lebih resiko, sebuah ple ¬
ujian yang diberikan semua pembeli dan penjual adalah penentang resiko,
meskipun tidak pada tingkat yang sama, dan semua mematuhi aksioma von
Neumann-Morgenstern (</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">lihat Sec 3-8)..</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><b>Lindung
Nilai</b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Pertimbangkan seorang petani yang menghasilkan
komoditas di bawah penyelidikan.Biarkan biaya fungsinya C (q) secara ketat
cembung, dan utilitas fungsinya U (7R) secara ketat Conca • - • e.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika
petani menjual di pasar berjangka pada harga yang sedang p *, ia memaksimalkan
utilitas dengan menyamakan harga ini untuk nya MC.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Jika ia
tidak menjual di pasar berjangka, orde pertama kondisinya untuk memaksimalkan
utilitas yang diharapkan [lihat (5-21] adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9F7gf1yCZfOIW2znHn6WHwJuQhFTw6sBCklU8QKJMqH_kR5GqE4oO6lrT_k1i7KTsgxy6HX1J4nap3SoxKgH7BA1_Qpt2ftOi-jFmC0fNp8oT9g4xJqsmp7AgJv4lyur2_WF3BBzHbIC5/s1600/cats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9F7gf1yCZfOIW2znHn6WHwJuQhFTw6sBCklU8QKJMqH_kR5GqE4oO6lrT_k1i7KTsgxy6HX1J4nap3SoxKgH7BA1_Qpt2ftOi-jFmC0fNp8oT9g4xJqsmp7AgJv4lyur2_WF3BBzHbIC5/s1600/cats.jpg" height="69" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Biarkan U0 adalah nilai utilitas maksimum ditentukan
dari (6-28).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tingkat utilitas dari partisipasi berjangka-pasar</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">U U * = [p *q * - C(q *)] = V (p *)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">mana * q adalah solusi untuk * p = C '(q *).</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jelas, dU * /dP *> 0.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Biarkan pt menjadi solusi dari UG = V (* p).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Untuk p * PW
<petani tidak akan menjual di pasar berjangka, ia lebih suka ketidakpastian
harga dengan kepastian yang disediakan oleh pasar berjangka.Untuk p *> pt
dia akan menjual seluruh output sebagai ditentukan oleh fungsi MC-Nya, ia
kemudian lebih memilih kepastian pasar berjangka.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">Untuk ilustrasi mari U = Dalam (7R + 10) dan C =
0,582 dengan p,, = 4 p2 = 8, dan V1 = V2 = 0,5.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span">Solusi
perkiraan untuk (28/06) adalah qo ~ 5,246 dan U<sup>o</sup> 3,245.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Juga,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> V (p<sub>o</sub><sup>*</sup>) = Dalam (0-5<sub>0</sub><sup>*</sup>
2 + 10) = 3,245</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span">memiliki solusi p 5,598.</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">penawaran pasar berjangka-petani itu fungsi 'adalah</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"><br />
</span><span class="apple-style-span"> S = O
jika * P <5,598</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"> S = P *
jika * P> 5,598</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><b>Risiko
Asumsi</b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Seseorang tanpa
kepentingan langsung dalam komoditas mungkin membeli atau menjual di pasar
berjangka apabila ia dapat meningkatkan utilitas nya.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Dia menghindari mengambil
pengiriman atau harus menyediakan komoditas melalui suatu transaksi pada
tanggal yang ditentukan masa depan.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Biarkan utilitas nya
merupakan fungsi dari posisi aktiva nya U = U (A) dengan posisi awal U0 = U
(Ao).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;">Biarkan D menunjukkan kelebihan permintaan di pasar berjangka seperti
yang D> O berarti bahwa ia adalah membeli untuk pengiriman di masa depan *
p, dan D <0 berarti bahwa ia jual.</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span">utilitas-Nya yang diharapkan adalah</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-65607851087157306112012-04-29T13:06:00.002+07:002012-04-29T13:06:48.929+07:00Masalah Kelembagaan dalam Otonomi Daerah<br />
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<span class="hps"><b><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Peraturan</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b></span><span class="hps"><b><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">tentang
Pekerja (Regulations on labour)<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Perubahan kelembagaan otonomi daerah tidak
membawa kemudahan dalam peraturan tentang pekerja atau belum membuat peraturan
tenaga kerja yang lebih menguntungkan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
</div>
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<span class="hps"><i><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertanyaan
itu bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah perubahan kelembagaan memfasilitasi
peraturan tentang tenaga kerja.<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div>
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<div class="Section3">
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</div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan melihat nilai rata-rata di Badung
dan Sleman, kita dapat mengatakan bahwa sebagian besar pengusaha di Kabupaten
Badung dan Sleman menilai bahwa perubahan kelembagaan tidak membawa kemudahan
dalam peraturan tentang tenaga kerja. Namun, untuk Kabupaten Kupang sebagian
besar responden cukup setuju bahwa perubahan kelembagaan otonomi daerah membawa
kemudahan dalam regulasi tenaga kerja. Sebuah tes Kruskal-Wallis untuk tiga
kelompok yang tidak berhubungan menunjukkan bahwa sampel tidak berbeda satu
sama lain dengan nilai p statistik tidak signifikan> 0,05. Jadi, dapat
disebutkan bahwa perubahan theinstitutional otonomi daerah tidak membawa
kemudahan dalam regulasi pada tenaga kerja.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="Section1">
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<b>Persaingan
Usaha (Business competition)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
</div>
<div class="Section2">
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<br /></div>
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<div class="Section3">
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<span class="hps">Perubahan kelembagaan otonomi daerah
tampaknya mendorong persaingan usaha antara pengusaha swasta, seperti yang kita
dapat melihat hasil skor rata-rata di Sleman, Badung dan Kupang adalah 3,4, 3,3
dan 3,7.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><i>Pertanyaan
itu bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah perubahan kelembagaan memfasilitasi
persaingan bisnis.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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</div>
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<span class="hps">Mayoritas pengusaha di Kabupaten Sleman,
Badung dan Kupang, sebagian besar setuju bahwa perubahan kelembagaan telah
mendorong persaingan usaha di daerah. Pengusaha lokal mengakui bahwa persaingan
usaha yang diperkuat dengan perubahan kelembagaan. Kenaikan ini terasa di
antara para pengusaha lokal karena otonomi daerah membuat pemerintah daerah
membuka lebih banyak kesempatan bagi pengusaha di daerah mereka, khususnya Kabupaten
Kupang. Sebuah tes Kruskal-Wallis untuk tiga kelompok yang tidak berhubungan
menunjukkan bahwa sampel tidak berbeda satu sama lain dengan nilai p statistik
tidak signifikan> 0,05.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span class="hps"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Oleh karena itu, kemungkinan akan
menunjukkan bahwa perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks otonomi daerah akan lebih
mendorong persaingan usaha di tiga wilayah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
</div>
<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" /></span></span><br />
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></span><br />
<div class="Section1">
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<span class="hps"><b>Biaya
Informal (Informal charges)<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span class="hps">Perubahan kelembagaan otonomi baru belum
mengurangi biaya informal antara pengusaha swasta.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div class="Section2">
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<span class="hps"><i>Pertanyaan
itu bertujuan untuk memeriksa apakah kelembagaan perubahan dalam konteks
otonomi daerah mengurangi biaya informal pada pengusaha swasta</i></span><span class="hps">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span class="hps"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></span></span></span><br />
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</span></span>
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<span class="hps"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan melihat nilai rata-rata, kita dapat
mengatakan bahwa di Kabupaten Badung, Kupang dan Sleman sebagian besar
pengusaha dianggap bahwa perubahan institusional tidak mengurangi biaya
informal. Biaya tersebut dikenakan oleh pemerintah telah kurang jumlahnya
meskipun masih ada biaya tidak resmi dipraktekkan dalam kegiatan bisnis.
Bahkan, beberapa dari mereka mengakui peningkatan jumlah biaya informal. Sebuah
tes Kruskal-Wallis untuk tiga kelompok yang tidak berhubungan menunjukkan bahwa
sampel tidak berbeda satu sama lain dengan nilai p statistik tidak
signifikan> 0,05. Hasilnya, semua responden berpendapat bahwa perubahan
kelembagaan otonomi daerah belum dikurangi biaya informal di tiga wilayah.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div class="Section1">
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><b>Biaya
Eksekutif lokal lobi (Local executive lobbying cost) <o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pertanyaan
ini ditujukan untuk menemukan apakah perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks
otonomi daerah di hasil meningkat biaya melobi dengan dewan lokal<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam
tiga wilayah, perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks hasil otonomi daerah di lobi
meningkat dengan dewan lokal. Semua responden di tiga wilayah yang disepakati
(dengan mencetak di atas tiga) bahwa perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks
otonomi daerah di hasil meningkat biaya melobi dengan dewan lokal. Mereka
mengatakan bahwa beberapa dewan lokal berjuang lebih untuk mereka sendiri dan
kepentingan kelompok mereka. Sebuah tes Kruskal-Wallis untuk tiga kelompok yang
tidak berhubungan menunjukkan bahwa sampel berbeda satu sama lain dengan nilai
p statistik signifikan <0,05, terutama, untuk Kabupaten Kupang. Oleh karena
itu, kemungkinan akan menunjukkan bahwa perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks
otonomi daerah telah meningkatkan biaya lobi antara dewan lokal dan pengusaha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Biaya Melobi Eksekutif Pemerintah Daerah
(The cost lobbying local government executive)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Demikian
pula, dalam hal daerah tiga sampel studi perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks
otonomi daerah meningkat biaya lobi dari bisnis lokal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i>Pertanyaan itu diberikan untuk
mengetahui apakah perubahan kelembagaan dalam konteks otonomi daerah meningkat
biaya lobi dari bisnis lokal.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan
melihat nilai rata-rata, sebagian besar pengusaha swasta di Kabupaten Kupang
dan Kabupaten Sleman menilai bahwa perubahan kelembagaan telah meningkatkan
biaya lobi kepada eksekutif pemerintah daerah. Sementara di Kabupaten Badung,
ada sebagian pengusaha yang berpikir bukan cara yang sama. Sebuah tes
Kruskal-Wallis untuk tiga kelompok yang tidak berhubungan menunjukkan bahwa
sampel tidak berbeda satu sama lain dengan nilai p statistik signifikan
<0,05, terutama untuk Kabupaten Badung. Dengan demikian kita dapat
mengatakan bahwa perubahan kelembagaan otonomi daerah telah meningkatkan biaya
pengusaha lobi eksekutif pemerintah daerah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>EFEK KELEMBAGAAN PADA KONDISI BISNIS LOKAL <o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>(INSTITUTIONAL EFFECTS ON LOCAL
BUSINESS CONDITION)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Efek
perubahan kelembagaan otonomi daerah terhadap bisnis dan kinerja ekonomi dalam
transisi otonomi daerah dianalisis menggunakan kategori yang disajikan pada
bagian satu. Setelah membahas uji deskripsi statistik kita menganalisis
hubungan indikator kelembagaan terhadap kinerja bisnis dalam matriks korelasi
Spearman rho dengan (p) dan regresi logistik binomial. Hipotesis kami uji
adalah bahwa kehandalan kelembagaan lebih tinggi yang baik untuk kinerja
ekonomi atau kinerja bisnis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Spearman rank koefisien korelasi<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Analisis
korelasi yang bersangkutan dengan mengukur derajat hubungan antara dua
variabel. Kami menggunakan koefisien korelasi peringkat Spearman, karena data
kategorikal dan ordinal, tidak terdistribusi normal, ukuran sampel yang kecil
dan hubungan non linier antara dua variabel. Untuk menghindari sampel yang
kecil, kita terintegrasi tiga wilayah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Matriks
koefisien korelasi pada Tabel 1 menunjukkan hubungan positif yang kuat antara
bisnis, insentif kinerja dan hukum, korelasi adalah signifikan pada tingkat
0,05 (2-tailed). Meskipun jajaran keseluruhan dari indikator kelembagaan yang
rendah dan tidak signifikan, namun hubungan negatif antara kinerja bisnis
variabel dan biaya lobi, peraturan dan kebijakan ketidakpastian dan konflik
politik menarik untuk ikut dalam program mendalam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Tabel 1 Matriks Koefisien Korelasi, penilaian kelembagaan (hasil Spearman
rho)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b>Model Regresi Logistik Binomial<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
bagian ini kami menggabungkan data dari tiga survei daerah untuk melakukan
eksplorasi analisis variate multi. Regresi logistik binomial akan digunakan
karena variabel terikat adalah dikotomi dan variabel independen adalah kontinu,
variabel kategori, atau keduanya. Data kategorikal dapat dibagi menjadi nominal
dan ordinal. Data nominal adalah kategoris dan tidak diperintahkan tetapi hanya
memiliki nama, sedangkan data ordinal berarti<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kategori
diperintahkan dalam beberapa cara. Sebuah variabel kategoris adalah biner atau
dikotomis ketika hanya ada dua kategori mungkin. Contohnya termasuk ya / tidak,
tinggi / rendah, dengan dan tanpa dan sebelum dan sesudah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dimana:
y adalah variabel dependen binomial; Xi vektor variabel bebas untuk observasi
ke-i, sebuah parameter intersep, b dan vektor parameter koefisien. Parameter model
akan diestimasi dengan menggunakan teknik maximum likelihood. Sebuah koefisien
estimasi positif dan signifikan tersirat bahwa peningkatan nilai variabel
penjelas tertentu dikaitkan dengan peluang peningkatan variabel dependen
mengambil nilai satu (Amemiya, 1981, dikutip oleh Maitland, 2000:18)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Variabel
terikat diciptakan dari skala likert kinerja bisnis, di mana satu diwakili
sangat setuju dan nol diwakili sangat tidak setuju. Sebuah kinerja bisnis
binomial variabel dibangun oleh coding satu sebagai skor 4 dan 5 dan nol
diwakili skor 1, 2 dan 3. Variabel dependen menunjukkan apakah kinerja bisnis
adalah tinggi oleh persepsi bisnis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Himpunan
variabel penjelas termasuk boneka satu dan nol, indikator kelembagaan yang
dijelaskan, misalnya, lobi biaya, konflik politik, kebijakan ketidakpastian,
hak keamanan properti, kepastian hukum dan insentif. Tabel 2 merangkum variabel
independen </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan
tanda diharapkan untuk set pertama dari model logit</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk
menganalisis Goodness of fit dari model, kami menggunakan statistik
Hosmer-Lemeshow dan tabel klasifikasi untuk mengevaluasi hasil estimasi (Hosmer
dan Lemeshow, 1980, Jobson, 1992). Mereka juga mengatakan model menyediakan
cocok untuk data jika nilai statistik uji p <0,05 dan statistik
Hosmer-Lemeshow dilambangkan oleh distribusi Chi Square (X2).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Tabel 2 - Tanda Variabel dan
diharapkan Independen Logit model Performance Bisnis Binomial<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hasil
untuk regresi logit model kinerja analisa bisnis Binomial dapat dilihat pada
Tabel 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Tabel 3 Logit Binomial Model Estimasi-Kinerja
Bisnis<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 3 rincian koefisien yang
diperkirakan untuk tiga wilayah dan semua model logit daerah menganalisis
kinerja bisnis. Para Hosmer-Lemeshow uji statistik p value untuk Model 1 adalah
bermakna (p <0,05). Model ini menunjukkan cocok merata selama rentang data.
Demikian juga, tabel klasifikasi menunjukkan bahwa distribusi nilai variabel
terikat adalah kemampuan dan bahkan model yang kuat. Analisis sensitivitas juga
menunjukkan persentase yang benar 81,7 persen atau 54,5-93,9 persen. Namun,
model 2, 3 dan 4 menunjukkan distribusi yang tidak merata dari nilai-nilai
variabel dependen dan semua variabel kelembagaan (variabel independen) tidak
signifikan. Oleh karena itu, dalam bagian ini kita tidak dapat menganalisis
Model 2, 3 dan 4 secara rinci<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 3 dalam Model 1 menunjukkan
hasil untuk ukuran struktur insentif. Koefisien variabel insentif dalam Model 1
menunjukkan efek positif yang kuat pada kinerja bisnis dan secara statistik
signifikan. Oleh karena itu, kita dapat mengatakan bahwa insentif koefisien
yang positif dan signifikan, yang ditunjukkan lembaga perubahan otonomi daerah
berdasarkan variabel insentif dikaitkan dengan probabilitas peningkatan kinerja
bisnis yang sukses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tabel 3 juga menunjukkan pentingnya
variabel kelembagaan untuk kinerja bisnis. Koefisien indikator lain kelembagaan
di Model 1 menunjukkan hubungan negatif yang kuat antara kinerja bisnis yang
buruk dan variabel institusional seperti, lobi, konflik politik, kebijakan
ketidakpastian dan keamanan hak milik. Namun, semua indikator variabel
kelembagaan (variabel independen) tidak signifikan, kecuali variabel insentif.
Seperti yang diprediksi oleh teori bahwa ada hambatan kelembagaan untuk
melakukan bisnis di tiga sampel wilayah, terutama di era transisi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br />Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-18297901472026757902012-03-07T17:52:00.000+07:002012-03-07T17:53:05.117+07:00PERTUMBUHAN DAN PERUBAHAN STRUKTURAL<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PEREKONOMIAN INDO</b><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">N</span>ESIA</b><span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PERTUMBUHAN DAN PERUBAHAN STRUKTURAL<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>PENDAHULUAN</b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Latar Belakang :</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. Arti pembangunan baru memberikan suatu kerangka luar
pembangunan itu sendiri yang diawali tugas dan funggsinya seperti bagian
pertama. Semuanya harus dikaji dalam suatu rangkaian dalam suatu hubungan
kausal ( sebab dan akibat ). Disinilah letaknya teori. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. Teori bersifat universal dan penerapan tergantung kepada
konstraint yang ada, maka biasanya teori tersebut diterapkan melalui asumsi.
Dalam ilmu ekonomi asumsi itu bersifat cateris paribus. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Ekonomi Pembangunan sebagai suatu ilmu tidak berdiri
sendiri, dan merupakan salah satu bagian dari pada ilmu ekonomi. Secara teori
Ekonomi Pembangunan adalah cabang ilmu ekonomi relatif baru.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4. Muncul setelah pemikiran makro ekonomi tahun 1940’an<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( John Maynard Keynes : “ The
General Theory of Employment : Interest and Money “). Pemikiran makro Keynes
memberikan suatu landasan yang kuat tentang teori ekonomi pembangunan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Perubahan Struktural </b><br />
Pandangan Klassik - (Lewis - Fe - Ranis ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi diartikan perubahan struktur perekonomian suatu negara dari ekonomi
tradisional ke ekonomi modern. Perubahan meliputi komposisi permintaan dan
produksi, industri, struktur lapangan kerja serta pasar (termasuk pasar luar
negeri) dan keuangan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kompleknya
permsalahan memerlukan suatu proses jangka panjang dan berkelanjutan, meliputi
peninjau kembalian kebijakan yang sudah dilakukan dan perbaikan, untuk ini
memerlukan waktu satu abad.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pemikiran
Lewis-Fe- Ranis : Untuk mencapai masyarakat modern dari ikatan tradisional.
Unsur-unsur dualisme ekonomi harus dilepas seperti masalah perkotaan dan
pedesaan. Dualisme di bidang ekonomi hanya disebabkan push and pull factors
ditengah-tengah masyarakat. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lewis
menyaranan agar dualisme ekonomi dilihat kaitan (hubungan) satu sama lain
secara terintegrasi, sehingga push and pull factors berkurang. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Diberikan contoh
oleh Lewis : masalah urbanisasi dan industrialisasi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>2. PEKEMBANGAN SETELAH KEYNES</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Setelah
Perang Dunia II, dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi pentingnya intervensi
pemerintah<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>: pemerintah sebagai agent of
development.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Namun
intervensi pemerintah diperdebatkan, debat melahirkan 3 kelompok pemikiran yang
masing-masing memberikan penekanan berbeda :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Intervensi pemerintah diperlukan untuk
perubahan struktural di </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bidang
perekonomian. Kelompok ini diprakarsai<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Roseinstain-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rodan dan
Hirshcman </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Menolak
intervensi pemerintah dalam pasar. Biarkan mekanisme </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pasar mengatur
perekonomian. Kelompok ini diprakarsai oleh </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemikiran
Solow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Kelompok yang
mengambil jalan tengah. Yang penting intervensi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah
dilakukan tanpa merusak mekanisme pasar. Kelompok </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ini
diprakarsai oleh Harrod Domard dan kemudian dikembangkan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rostow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>3. KONSEP PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi merupakan proses berkelanjutan dalam pembangunan ekonomi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Secara
makro prosesnya terjadi dalam peningkatan output secara agregat atau disebut
dengan kenaikan PDB/PDRB setiap tahun.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Berarti
pertumbuhan ekonomi adalah kenaikan PDB/PDRB atau penambahan pendapatan
nasional/regional</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi merupakan salah satu indikator pembangunan, biasanya diukur dengan
PDB/PDRB berdasarkan harga konstan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi merupakan target dalamproses pembangunan, misalnya Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
Indonesia 6,3 % per tahun, maka dikatakan laju pertumbuhan pendapatan per
kapita sekitar 4,3 % dan pertumbuhan penduduk 2,1 % per tahun. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>SUMBER PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Keynes,
pertumbuhan bersumber dari sisi Aggregate Demand ( AD) dan Aggregate Supply (
AS ).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Titik
perpotongan antara kurva AD dan AS di sebut titik keseimbangan ( equilibrium
point ) yang menghasilkan suatu jumlah output aggregate dan membentuk PDB/PDRB.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dimana, AD<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y
=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>C + I + G + X – M</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>AS<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y = C + S + T</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Keynes
: setiap perubahan komponen dalan Y dipandang sebagai penyebab terjadinya
pertumbuhan. Apabila salah satu komponen diatas meningkat terjadi kenaikan. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>4. BEBERAPA TEORI PERTUMBUHAN</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>1. Walt W Rostow ( 1960 )</b> : </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Proses
pembangunan yang dialami suatu negara yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>maju melalui
tahapan sebagai berikut :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Tahap masyarakat
tradisionil ( traditional society) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Tahap
pra-kondisi lepas landas ( pra-condition for take off ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Tahap tinggal
landas ( Take off ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Tahap dorongan
menuju kedewasaan ( drive matuarity )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5. Tahap Konsumsi
tinggi secara massal ( high mass consumption )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dari 5 tahapan
yang dikemukakan Rostow ini, bagi negara-negara yang berada dalam proses
pertumbuhan ekonomi ( UDC), maka tahapan yang diperlukan adalah sampai tinggal
landas ( take off ). Sedangkan bagi negara-negara yang sudah maju (DC)
bagaimana mempertahankan pertumbuhan ekonomi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bagi Rostow :
untuk sampai kepada tahapan tinggal landas, maka negara sedang membangun ( UDC)
harus beberapa memenuhi persyaratan antara lain penyediaan tabungan
masyarakat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yang cukup tinggi ( 5,0 %
sampai 10 % ) agar investasi dapat dilaksanakan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Teori
Harrod-Domar </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Teori
Harrod-Domard memberi rincian lebih lanjut terhadap apa yang dikemukakan
Rostow. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Untuk
mencapai pertumbuhan ekonomi diperlukan spesifikasi, tidak cukup mengatakan
penyediaan tabungan cukup besar sekitar 5 - 10 %, tetapi yang lebih penting
adalah tingkat capaian (hasil) yang diperoleh. Harrod-Domar memperkenalkan
konsep Capital Output Ratio dengan notasi k</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>ΔY/Y
= s/k<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>k<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= ΔY/Y<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>: s<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y adalah pendapatan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>k adalah suatu
koefisien, yang ditentukan oleh s, apabila s besar maka k menjadi besar,
berarti kemampuan pertumbuhan ekonomi cukup tinggi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Konsep
Harrod-Domard memberikan peluang bagi negara yang kemampuan s rendah untuk
memperoleh bantuan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pinjaman atau
investasi dari luar dalam rangka menutup saving invesment gap. Karena untuk
pertumbuhan ekonomi diperlukan investasi yang cukup besar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ΔI/I =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>[<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1/ICOR ] (&)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sY = ICOR (
Yt – Yt-1 )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( Yt Yt-1<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>s</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>--------------<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>=<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>----------<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ICOR</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Inti
dari model Harrod Domard adalah pembentukan kapital </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(investasi )
disebut dengan incremental capital out ratio</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>3. Teori Rodenstein-Rodan dan Hirschman</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pembangunan
ekonomi memerlukan perubahan struktural terutama dalam menghilangkan
ketidaksempurnaan pasar dan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>melepaskan diri
dari ketergantungan kepada sektor primer (traditional sectors) ke modern
sectors).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Perubahan
struktural yang dianjurkan berbeda dengan Rostow dan Harod-Domar, bukan hanya
dalam komposisi tabungan masyarakat (s) tetapi lebih menekankan kepada ketidak
sempurnaan pasar dan struktur produksi serta permintaan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Namun
antara Hirscman dan Rodeinstein-Rodan ada perbedaan penekanan teoritis.
Rodenstein-Rodan menganjurkan perubahan dilakukan secara besar-besar (big push
approach), sedangkan Hirscman menganjurkan melalui penekanan kepada keterkaitan
(back-ward and fore-ward linkages). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>4. Teori Rodeinstein-Rodan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Dalam rangka
dorongan besar-besaran (big push )</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Diperlukan 3
syarat mutlak :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Segi penawaran
: untuk mendorong proses berkelanjutan diperlukan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>terlebih
dahulu pembangunan Social Overhead Capital (SOC) dalam </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bentuk
pembangunan insfrastruktur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Segi
permintaan : Mendirikan secara serempak industri yang berkaitan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pembangunan
industri secara terpisah mengandung resiko, khususnya </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>di bidang
pemasaran.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Segi tabungan
: Sama dengan yang dikemukakan Rostow dan Harrod-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Domard, yaitu
penyediaan tabungan sekitar 5 -10 %.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">5. Teori
Hirschaman</span></b><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">·<span lang="IN"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Senada dengan Robenstein-Rodan perlu adanya
keterkaitan antar industri, tetapi strateginya berbeda, yaitu :</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Pembangunan SOC tidak harus didahului
pembangunan kegiatan produktif </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>langsung ( Directly Productive
Activities = DPA ). DPA datang kemudian.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Pembangunan industri yang serentak akan
mengundang resiko dan justru </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menciptakan ketidakseimbangan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Hirschman tidak setuju dengan intervensi
pemerintah terhadap DPA, yang </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>seharusnya diurus oeh sektor swasta. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>6. Teori Solow</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Solow
menghidupkan kembali <b>pemikiran neo-klassik</b>, karena :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Mengurangi
campur tangan pemeintah, karena peraturan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah
menimbulkan ketidak seimbangan pasar dan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>distorsi
harga.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Masalah
pembangunan menyangkut efisiensi alokasi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sumber
ekonomi. Biarkan mekanisme pasar bekerja </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Strategi dan
kebijakan pemerintah bersifat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“ Smart
Intervention “</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Pokok
pikiran Solow : </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Menghidupkan
peranan capital (modal )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Menonjolkan
peranan tenaga kerja </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Adanya fixed
factors : diminishing return to scale</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d. Perlu
menghilangkan berbagai bentuk intervensi pemerintah yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menghambat
masuknya modal asing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">7.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>TEORI PERTUMBUHAN ENDOGENOUS </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Teori
pertumbuhan endogenous berbeda dengan teori Solow, yang menganggap keseimbangan
jangka panjang dari capital-labor ratio akan menghasilkan pertumbuhan mendekati
zero growth (konvergent).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Penyebab
lain dalam pertumbuhan adalah peranan pemerintah maupun swasta yang disebut
dengan complementary investment.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Peran
pemerintah tidak berlebihan terutama terhadap hal-hal yang selektif dan
strategis yang disebut dengan smart intervention.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>8. TEORI PEMBANGUNAN SOSIAL </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Teori
Pembangunan sosial menekankan bahwa pembangunan itu </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dari manusia
untuk manusia itu sendiri. Pokok pikiran dalam hal ini adalah :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Dalam proses
pembangunan akan menghasilkan hasil yang lebih </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>besar
apabila peran masyarakat lebih besar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Pembangunan
memerlukan 4 jenis infrastruktur, yaitu phisik, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sosial,
mental danpsikologis.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Yang
terpenting dalam proses pembangunan adalah kemampuan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>manusia
dalam berpikir</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">5. STRUKTUR EKONOMI<br />
(dikelompokan kedalam 9 atau 11 sektor ekonomi atau lapangan usaha utama yang
diperinci kedalam sub-sub sektor atau sub-sub lapangan usaha )</span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l18 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Pertanian
</b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l18 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>Pertanian bahan makanan dan holtikultura </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l18 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>Pertanian perkebunan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l18 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>Peternakan dan hasil-hasilnya </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l18 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>Kehutanan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l18 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">–<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>Perikanan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Pertambangan
dan Galian </b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo17; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Pertambangan
MB-Gas Bumi </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo17; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Non
MB-Gas Bumi </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l8 level2 lfo17; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Penggalian
</b></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Industri
</b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Listrik
dan Air Minum </b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Bangunan
</b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Perdagangan,
Restoran dan Hotel</b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Pengangkutan
dan Komunikasi </b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Pemerintahan
dan Pertahanan </b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Jasa-jasa
</b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Industri Pengolahan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Listrik, Gas dan Air Bersih</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Bangunan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Perdagangan, Restoran dan Hotel</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pengangkutan, jasa penunjang pengangkutan dan komunikasi.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Keuangan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pemerintahan umum, pertahanan dan jasa-jasa</span><span lang="IN"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>6. BEBERAPA CATATAN</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">A. Paradigma
Baru Pembangunan Ekonomi di Indonesia :</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Perubahan dari sentralisasi ke
desentralisasi</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Di Indonesia : adanya UU No. 22 dan 25
Tahun 1999</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perubahannya UU
No. 32 dan 33 Tahun 2004</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adanya UU No. 25 Tahun 2004</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Menyebabkan
perubahnya System Pengelolaan </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pembangunan di
Indonesia.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Konsep pembangunan ekonomi daerah semakin penting</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Pembangunan ekonomi daerah adalah suatu
proses dimana</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah daerah bersama semua
komponen yang ada,</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>termasuk dunia usaha, kelompok
masyarakat ataupun individu</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mengelola sumber daya yang ada di
daerah</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Dilaksanakannya kepemerintahan yang
baik ( Good<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Governance) </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
B. Peran Pemerintah Daerah Dalam<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pembangunan, antara lain :</div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l17 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Enterpreneur
( dalam arti inisiator dan inovator )</b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pemerintah
daerah bertanggung jawab untuk </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menjalankan
sesuatu resiko (seperti bisnis)</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koordinator </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pemerintah
daerah dapat bertindak sebagai koordinator </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>untuk
menetapkan strategi dan kebijakan bagi pemba </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ngunan
daerahnya.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fasilitator </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pemerintah
daerah dapat mempercepat pembangunan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>melalui
perbaikan lingkungan/attitudinal di daerahnya </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Stimulator</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pemerintah
daerah dapat menstimulasi<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>penciptaan dan
</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pengembangan
usaha melalui tindakan khusus yang akan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mempengaruhi
jalannya pelaksanaan pembangunan di </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>daerahnya</b>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-57401608521703022882012-03-07T17:44:00.001+07:002012-03-07T17:49:37.180+07:00Konsep dan Teori Pembangunan Ekonomi<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PEREKONOMIAN INDONESIA</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Konsep</b><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">
dan</span> Teori Pembangunan Ekonomi</b><b><span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">PENDAHULUAN</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pengantar : Kesimpulan sebelumnya </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. Arti pembangunan baru memberikan suatu kerangka
pembangunan itu sendiri yang diawali tugas dan funggsinya seperti kuliah
pertama. Semuanya harus dikaji dalam suatu rangkaian tugas dalam suatu hubungan
kausal ( sebab dan akibat ). Disinilah letaknya teori. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. Teori bersifat universal dan penerapan tergantung kepada
konstraint yang ada, maka biasanya teori tersebut diterapkan melalui asumsi.
Dalam ilmu ekonomi asumsi itu bersifat cateris paribus. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Ekonomi Pembangunan sebagai suatu ilmu tidak berdiri
sendiri, dan merupakan salah satu bagian dari pada ilmu ekonomi. Secara teori
Ekonomi Pembangunan adalah cabang ilmu ekonomi relatif baru.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4. Muncul setelah pemikiran makro ekonomi tahun 1940’an<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( John Maynard Keynes : “ The
General Theory of Employment : Interest and Money “). Pemikiran makro Keynes
memberikan suatu landasan yang kuat tentang teori ekonomi pembangunan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Perubahan Struktural </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pandangan Klassik - (Lewis - Fe - Ranis ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pembangunan
ekonomi diartikan perubahan struktur perekonomian suatu negara dari ekonomi
tradisional ke ekonomi modern. Perubahan meliputi komposisi permintaan dan
produksi, industri, struktur lapangan kerja serta pasar (termasuk pasar luar
negeri) dan keuangan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kompleknya
permsalahan memerlukan suatu proses jangka panjang dan berkelanjutan, meliputi
peninjau kembalian kebijakan yang sudah dilakukan dan perbaikan, untuk ini
memerlukan waktu satu abad.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pemikiran
Lewis-Fe- Ranis : Untuk mencapai masyarakat modern dari ikatan tradisional.
Unsur-unsur dualisme ekonomi harus dilepas seperti masalah perkotaan dan
pedesaan. Dualisme di bidang ekonomi hanya disebabkan push and pull factors
ditengah-tengah masyarakat. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lewis
menyaranan agar dualisme ekonomi dilihat kaitan (hubungan) satu sama lain
secara terintegrasi, sehingga push and pull factors berkurang. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Diberikan contoh
oleh Lewis : masalah urbanisasi dan industrialisasi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. PEKEMBANGAN SETELAH KEYNES</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Setelah
Perang Dunia II, orang melihat pentingnya intervensi pemerintah dalam
pembangunan ekonomi : pemerintah sebagai agent of development.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Namun
intervensi pemerintah diperdebatkan, debat melahirkan 3 kelompok pemikiran yang
masing-masing memberikan penekanan berbeda :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Intervensi pemerintah diperlukan untuk
perubahan struktural di </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bidang
perekonomian. Kelompok ini diprakarsai<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Roseinstain-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rodan dan
Hirshcman </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Menolak
intervensi pemerintah dalam pasar. Biarkan mekanisme </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pasar mengatur
perekonomian. Kelompok ini diprakarsai oleh </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemikiran
Solow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Kelompok yang
mengambil jalan tengah. Yang penting intervensi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah
dilakukan tanpa merusak mekanisme pasar. Kelompok </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ini
diprakarsai oleh Harrod Domard dan kemudian dikembangkan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rostow.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. BEBERAPA TEORI</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol>
<li><b>Walt W Rostow ( 1960 ) :</b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Proses
pembangunan yang dialami suatu negara yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>maju melalui
tahapan sebagai berikut :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Tahap
masyarakat tradisionil ( traditional society)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Tahap
pra-kondisi lepas landas ( pra-condition for take off ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Tahap tinggal
landas ( Take off ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Tahap dorongan
menuju kedewasaan ( drive matuarity )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5. Tahap Konsumsi
tinggi secara massal ( high mass consumption )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dari 5 tahapan
yang dikemukakan Rostow ini, bagi negara-negara yang berada dalam proses
pertumbuhan ekonomi ( UDC), maka tahapan yang diperlukan adalah sampai tinggal
landas ( take off ). Sedangkan bagi negara-negara yang sudah maju (DC)
bagaimana mempertahankan pertumbuhan ekonomi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bagi Rostow :
untuk sampai kepada tahapan tinggal landas, maka negara sedang membangun ( UDC)
harus beberapa memenuhi persyaratan antara lain penyediaan tabungan
masyarakat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>yang cukup tinggi ( 5,0 %
sampai 10 % ) agar investasi dapat dilaksanakan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>Teori
Harrod-Domar </b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Teori
Harrod-Domard memberi rincian lebih lanjut terhadap apa yang dikemukakan
Rostow. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Untuk
mencapai pertumbuhan ekonomi diperlukan spesifikasi, tidak cukup mengatakan
penyediaan tabungan cukup besar sekitar 5 - 10 %, tetapi yang lebih penting
adalah tingkat capaian (hasil) yang diperoleh. Harrod-Domar memperkenalkan
konsep Capital Output Ratio dengan notasi k</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>ΔY/Y
= s/k<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>k<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= ΔY/Y<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>: s<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Y adalah pendapatan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>k adalah suatu
koefisien, yang ditentukan oleh s, apabila s besar maka k menjadi besar,
berarti kemampuan pertumbuhan ekonomi cukup tinggi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Konsp
Harrod-Domard memberikan peluang bagi negara yang kemampuan s rendah untuk
memperoleh bantuan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pinjaman atau
investasi dari luar dalam rangka menutup saving invesment gap. Karena untuk
pertumbuhan ekonomi diperlukan investasi yang cukup besar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>3. Teori Rodenstein-Rodan dan Hirschman</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pembangunan
ekonomi memerlukan perubahan struktural terutama dalam menghilangkan
ketidaksempurnaan pasar dan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>melepaskan diri
dari ketergantungan kepada sektor primer (traditional sectors) ke modern
sectors).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Perubahan
struktural yang dianjurkan berbeda dengan Rostow dan Harod-Domar, bukan hanya
dalam komposisi tabungan masyarakat (s) tetapi lebih menekankan kepada ketidak
sempurnaan pasar dan struktur produksi serta permintaan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Namun
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Rodenstein-Rodan menganjurkan perubahan dilakukan secara besar-besar (big push
approach), sedangkan Hirscman menganjurkan melalui penekanan kepada keterkaitan
(back-ward and fore-ward linkages). </div>
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</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>4. Teori Rodeinstein-Rodan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Dalam rangka
dorongan besar-besaran (big push )</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Diperlukan 3
syarat mutlak :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Segi penawaran
: untuk mendorong proses berkelanjutan diperlukan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>terlebih
dahulu pembangunan Social Overhead Capital (SOC) dalam </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bentuk
pembangunan insfrastruktur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Segi permintaan : Mendirikan secara
serempak industri yang berkaitan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pembangunan
industri secara terpisah mengandung resiko, khususnya </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>di bidang
pemasaran.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Segi tabungan
: Sama dengan yang dikemukakan Rostow dan Harrod-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Domard, yaitu
penyediaan tabungan sekitar 5 -10 %.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">5. Teori
Hirschaman</span></b><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">·<span lang="IN"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Senada dengan Robenstein-Rodan perlu adanya
keterkaitan antar industri, tetapi strateginya berbeda, yaitu :</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Pembangunan SOC tidak harus didahului
pembangunan kegiatan produktif </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>langsung ( Directly Productive
Activities = DPA ). DPA datang kemudian.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Pembangunan industri yang serentak akan
mengundang resiko dan justru </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menciptakan ketidakseimbangan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Hirschman tidak setuju dengan intervensi
pemerintah terhadap DPA, yang </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>seharusnya diurus oeh sektor swasta. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>6. Teori Solow</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Solow
menghidupkan kembali <b>pemikiran neo-klassik</b>, karena :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Mengurangi
campur tangan pemeintah, karena peraturan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah
menimbulkan ketidak seimbangan pasar dan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>distorsi
harga.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Masalah
pembangunan menyangkut efisiensi alokasi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sumber
ekonomi. Biarkan mekanisme pasar bekerja </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Strategi dan
kebijakan pemerintah bersifat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“ Smart
Intervention “</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Pokok
pikiran Solow : </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Menghidupkan
peranan capital (modal )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Menonjolkan
peranan tenaga kerja </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Adanya fixed
factors : diminishing return to scale</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d. Perlu
menghilangkan berbagai bentuk intervensi pemerintah yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menghambat
masuknya modal asing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">7.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>TEORI PERTUMBUHAN ENDOGENOUS </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Teori
pertumbuhan endogenous berbeda dengan teori Solow, yang menganggap keseimbangan
jangka panjang dari capital-labor ratio akan menghasilkan pertumbuhan mendekati
zero growth (konvergent).</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Penyebab
lain dalam pertumbuhan adalah peranan pemerintah maupun swasta yang disebut
dengan complementary investment.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Peran
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strategis yang disebut dengan smart intervention.</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>8. TEORI PEMBANGUNAN SOSIAL </b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Teori
Pembangunan sosial menekankan bahwa pembangunan itu </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dari manusia
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<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Dalam proses
pembangunan akan menghasilkan hasil yang lebih </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>besar
apabila peran masyarakat lebih besar.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Pembangunan memerlukan 4 jenis
infrastruktur, yaitu phisik, </b></div>
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<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sosial,
mental danpsikologis.</b></div>
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<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Yang
terpenting dalam proses pembangunan adalah kemampuan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>manusia
dalam berpikir </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-81042499272390203692012-03-07T17:38:00.000+07:002012-03-07T17:49:37.186+07:00MASALAH DAN TANTANGAN<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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PEREKONIMIAN INDONESIA</div>
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<br /></div>
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A. FAKTOR PENENTU PEMBANGUNAN </div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kondisi, meliputi keadaan ekonomi, sosial dan
politik, budaya, keamanan, kondisi phisik daerah serta sarana umum</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">2. Pencanaan
Pembangunan, meliputi tujuan, sasaran target pembangunan, strategi dan
pelaksanaan.</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sarana Pembangunan, meliputi kelembagaan,
dana dan sumber daya yang tersedia.</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pengaruh luar, meliputi pengaruh keadaan
sosial politk, ekonomi dan keamanan dunia serta kekuatan yang secara khusus
mempengaruhi keadaan nasional dan daerah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pelaksanaan, meliputi pelaksanaan
ketentuan-ketentuan serta pengaturan dan pelaksanaan perencanaan pembangunan.</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN"><span> </span>Kelima faktor ini dapat merupakan
penghambat dan pendorong dalam mencapai tujuan, sasaran dan target pembangunan. </span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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Penentuan Strategi Pembangunan</div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Merupakan bagian yang penting dalam
mencapai tujuan, sasaran dan target pembangunan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Strategi pola tindakan dalam mewujudkan
agar kebijakan dapat dilaksanakan dengan baik. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Strategi Pembangunan Daerah adalah
kebijakan dalam mengimplimentasikan program program Kepala Daerah dan sebagai
payung dalam mewujudkan Visi dan Misi Kepala Negara/Daerah. ( UU No. 25 Tahun
2004) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Strategi dipilh pada umumnya memiliki ciri
:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. sederhana dan mudah dimengerti.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. hasil yang dicapai jelas terukur</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. dapat dan mudah dilaksanakan erta dapat
dipertanggungjawabkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Resiko
kegagalan kecil.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e. Mencapai target yang diinginkan </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Strategi yang tepat dapat ditentukan
analisa data yang memadai, cukup dan teliti berkemampuan, baik kemampuan
potensial maupun kemampuan riel..</span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: SV;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>B. NASIONAL</b><b><span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pembangunan nasional dilaksanakan sesuai
dengan kondisi, kemampuan negara untuk berkembang dan kemajuan yang ingin
dicapai secara nasional.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pembangunan daerah merupakan proyeksi
sentral dari pembangunan nasional. Pembangunan daerah dilaksanakan sesuai
dengan kondisi dan kemampuan daerah untuk berkembang serta kemajuan yang ingin
dicapai.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pembangunan daerah dan sektor dilaksanakan
sesuai azas<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dan tujuan pembangunan
nasional.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Setiap keadaan dan kemampuan yang dapat
dijadikan modal dasar </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Modal dasar tersebut adalah NKRI dan
kemerdekaan, kelembagaan penyelenggaraan negara, warga negara (SDM ), SDA,
sistem ekonomi negara, IPTEK serta dana cadangan yang dimiliki. </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
D. TANTANGAN EKONOMI DUNIA 2012</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Krisis Hutang Eropa</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Krisis hutang meluas di Eropa. Bukan hanya
dirasakan di Yunani dan Spanyol tetapi meliputi hampir semua negara Eropa.
Penyeleasaian 2011 belum kelihatan dan 2012 masih akan berlanjut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pertumbuhan ekonomi yang melambat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sebagai dampak gejala krisis ekonomi di
Eropa 2011. Diperkirakan terjadi resesi ekonomi 2012, dimana terjadi penurunan
investasi, ekspor dan ratio pengeluaran pemerintah terhadap PDB. Di Asia
terjadi kekawatiran perekonoian Cina akan menurun dan mempunyai dampak kepada
Ekonomi Indonrsia</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Krisis Politik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Sebagai konsekwensi krisi politik di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Utara. Kedua
kawasan ini sangat rawan terjadinya benturan kepentingan negara kaya.
Kekawatiran terhadap pembangunan instalasi nuklir di Iran menyebabkan di
kawasan rawan krisis dan dapat mempengaruhi perkembangan politik ekonomi
Indonesia, karena politik ekonomi Indonesia dipenagruhu oleh harga minyak</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
4.</span><span lang="IN"> </span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Iklim dan Bencana Alam</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Perubahan iklim dan bencana alam sangat mempengaruhi ekonomi 2012. Rentetan
bencana alam terjadi seperti di Indonesia, Jepang, Philipine, Turki, Selandia
serta adanya isu pemanasan global mempengaruhi peningkatan produksi real
masyarakat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
5. Harga pangan dan energi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .25in;">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Perubahan iklim global dan tingginya harga energi di pasar dunia
menyebabkan gangguan dalam peningkatan peningkatan produksi riel.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">E. </span>STRATEGI
PEMBANGUNAN NASIONAL</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Penetapan strategi pembangunan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Sistem
Perekonomian Indonesia</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. azas kekeluargaan</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. pemerintah berkewajian melindungi kepentingan
ekonomi setiap </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>anggota masyarakat</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. perlindungan terhadap yang lemah</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d. penguasaan keperluan pokok bagi
kehidupan rakyat banyak dikuasai </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dan dikendalikan negara.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e. pemerintah memiliki aparatur
pengendalian perekonomian.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>f. pembangunan ekonomi diarahkan kepada
growth and equality<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Hasil yang diharapkan adalah :</span><span lang="IN"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. pertumbuhan ekonomi yang merata bagi
seluruh rakyat</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. perekonomian dan aset negara lebih
banyak dikuasai UKM dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. lapangan pekerjaan cukup dan upah
layak</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d. hasil pembangunan dinikmati secara adil</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>e. pada masyarakat terdapat kelas-kelas
ekonomi secara nyata </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">F</span>.
STRATEGI PEMBANGUNAN DAERAH<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Seperti dalam penentuan strategi yang dipilih adalah hal
yang </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>terbaik, maka strategi pembangunan daerah dimaksudkan
untuk :</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>a.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meningkatkan
produktivitas daerah.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>b. Mencipytakan lapangan kerja yang layak </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>c. Mengatasi kekurangan modal dalam meningkatkan ekonomi </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>d. Memperluas daya serap pasar barang dan jasa </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>e. Meningkatkan kegiatan ekonomi secara lebih merata </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>f. Meningkatkan kemampuan berusaha bagi masyarakat secara
luas </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>g.Meningkatkan kesejahteraan dan ktenteraman rakyat
melalui </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>penyediaan
keperluan hidup.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>h.Melestarikan dan meningkatkan kualitas lingkungan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>I. Menjamin kelangsungan pembangunan yang menyeluruh.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>STRATEGI DAERAH PERKOTAAN DAN PEDESAAN</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>A. Strategi Daerah Pedesaan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1.
Meningkatkan pengelolaan dan pemanfaatan sumber daya alam, baik<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>melalui
intesnsifikasi maupun intensifikasi.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2.
Meningkatkan pertanian pangan dan bahan industri sesuai dengan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lahan dan
keperluan pasar.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3.
Meningkatkan sarana perhubungan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Membantu
peningkatan pusat-pusat pertumbuhan.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5. Lebih
mengembagkan UKM</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>B. Daerah perkotaan.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Meningkatkan
sarana umum untuk mendukung perkembangan sektor </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>jasa
seperti perdagangan.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2.
Meningkatkan sarana hiburan dan rekreasi, antara lain hotel, </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>restoran<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dan tempat hiburan
lannya.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Meningkatkan
sektor jasa perbankan dan lembaga keuangan lainnya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Meningkatkan
sarana kegiatan sosial dan budaya<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-13659252700118351452012-03-07T17:30:00.000+07:002016-08-01T09:41:14.968+07:00Galau<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'lucida grande', tahoma, verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 14px; text-align: left;">Tadayao hati mambayangkan bakawan dulu<br />Cinto alah dipandam....<br />Rindu denai manuai galak,,<br />Ingin denai mangamuak sajadi-jadinyo,,<br /><span class="text_exposed_show" style="display: inline;">Salah denai harok batamu,,<br />Walau adiak alah baduo.....<br />Nan denai rusuahkan sarupu simalakamo..<br />Manyasa batamu namun sakik kahilangan.</span></span></span>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-22621032569196033472012-03-07T17:29:00.000+07:002012-03-07T17:49:42.663+07:00SEJARAH SISTEM PEREKONOMIAN INDONESIA<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">EKONOMI INDONESIA PADA MASA
PENJAJAHAN</span><span lang="IN"> </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">1. Masa
Pendudukan Belanda</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Pada masa penjajahan indonesia
menerapkan sistem perekonomian<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">
monopoli,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>dimana setiap kegiatan
perekonomian dijalankan <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">s</span>esuai<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>penguasa perdagangan saat itu. VOC adalah
lembaga yang<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>menguasai perdagangan
Indonesia saat itu. Pada masa VOC berkuasa<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">. M</span>ereka <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">me</span>nerapkan
peraturan dan strategi agar mereka tetep menguasai <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>perekonomian
Indonesia. Peraturan-peraturan yang ditetapkan VOC<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>seperti (kewajiban meyerahkan hasil bumi pada VOC )<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span>Disamping itu<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>VOC juga menjaga agar harga rempah-rempah tetap tinggi, antara lain<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>dengan diadakannya pembatasan jumlah
tanaman rempah-rempah yang<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>boleh
ditanam penduduk<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">. </span>Semua
aturan itu pada umumnya hanya<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>diterapkan
di Maluku yang memang sudah diisolasi oleh VOC dari polapelayaran niaga <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">S</span>amudera Hindia.<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Pada tahun 1795, VOC bubar karena
dianggap gagal dalam mengeksplorasi kekayaan Hindia Belanda. Kegagalan itu
nampak pada defisitnya kas VOC, yang antara lain disebabkan oleh :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>a.Peperangan yang terus-menerus
dilakukan oleh VOC dan memakan biaya besar, <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>terutama perang Diponegoro<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>b.Penggunaan tentara sewaan
membutuhkan biaya besar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">2. Masa
Pendudukan Inggris ( Masa imperialisme )</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Inggris berusaha merubah pola pajak hasil bumi yang telah
hampir dua abad diterapkan oleh Belanda, dengan menerapkan Landrent (pajak
tanah). Sistem ini sudah berhasil di India, dan Thomas Stamford Raffles mengira
sistem ini akan berhasil juga di Hindia Belanda. Selain itu, dengan landrent,
maka penduduk pribumi akan memiliki uang untuk membeli barang produk Inggris
atau yang diimpor dari India. Inilah imperialisme modern yang menjadikan tanah
jajahan tidak sekedar untuk dieksplorasi kekayaan alamnya, tapi juga menjadi
daerah pemasaran produk dari negara penjajah.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">P</span>erubahan
yang<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mendasar dalam perekonomian ini
sulit dilakukan, dan bahkan mengalami kegagalan di akhir kekuasaan Inggris <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span>Sebab-sebabnya antara lain :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a.Masyarakat Hindia Belanda pada umumnya buta huruf dan
kurang mengenal uang, apalagi untuk menghitung luas tanah yang kena pajak.<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b.Pegawai pengukur tanah dari Inggris sendiri jumlahnya
terlalu sedikit.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">3. </span>Masa
Cultuurstelsel</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cultuurstelstel
(sistem tanam paksa) mulai diberlakukan pada tahun 1836 atas inisiatif Van Den
Bosch. Tujuannya adalah untuk memproduksi berbagai komoditi yang ada
permintaannya di pasaran dunia. Sistem ini<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>menekan penduduk pribumi, tapi amat menguntungkan bagi Belanda, apalagi
dipadukan dengan sistem konsinyasi (monopoli ekspor). Setelah penerapan kedua
sistem ini, seluruh kerugian akibat perang dengan Napoleon di Belanda langsung
tergantikan berkali lipat.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Masyarakat
diwajibkan menanam tanaman komoditas ekspor dan menjual hasilnya ke
gudang-gudang pemerintah untuk kemudian dibayar dengan harga yang sudah
ditentukan oleh pemerintah. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Sistem Ekonomi Pintu Terbuka</span>:</div>
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<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Adanya dorongan dari kaum humanis <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">B</span>elanda yang menginginkan perubahan
nasib warga pribumi ke arah yang lebih baik<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Dibuat peraturan-peraturan agraria
yang baru, yang antara lain mengatur tentang penyewaan tanah pada pihak swasta
untuk jangka 75 tahun, dan aturan tentang tanah yang boleh disewakan dan yang
tidak boleh. </div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Hal ini <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">didasarkan pada </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>teori-teori mazhab klasik, <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">karena</span> terlihat:<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>a.Keberadaan pemerintah Hindia
Belanda sebagai tuan tanah, pihak <span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>swasta yang mengelola sebagai
golongan kapitalis, dan </div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>masyarakat pribumi sebagai
buruh penggarap tanah.<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Sistem Ekonomi Indonesia<br />
Menurut UUD 1945</span><span lang="IN"> </span></b></li>
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<b>1. Sistem Ekonomi Demokrasi</b> </div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b>2. Sistem Ekonomi Kerakyatan </b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</span>Cultuurstelstel melibatkan para bangsawan, antara lain dengan
memanfaatkan tatanan politik Mataram–yaitu kewajiban rakyat untuk melakukan
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<br /></div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-84085007470805765052012-03-07T17:24:00.000+07:002012-03-07T17:25:06.538+07:00SISTEM EKONOMI INDONESIA<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b>PEREKONOMIAN INDONESIA </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
PENDAHULUAN</div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">1. Pengetian sistem ekonomi</span><span lang="IN"> </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sistem
perekonomian adalah sistem yang digunakan oleh suatu negara untuk
mengalokasikan sumber daya yang dimilikinya baik kepada individu maupun
organisasi di negara tersebut </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sistem suatu negara </span>mengacu kepada
dua kekuatan besar, yakni sistem ekonomi kapitalis yang berlandaskan
liberalisme dan sistem ekonomi sosialis yang berlandaskan <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">komando</span>. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Perbedaan mendasar antara <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">kedua</span> sistem ekonomi <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tersebut </span>adalah bagaimana cara sistem itu
mengatur faktor produksinya. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Kedua sistem ekonomi tersebut bisa
dikatakan tidak mewakili sistem hidup masyarakat Indonesia. Oleh karena itu,
Indonesia merancang sendiri sistem perekonomian yang sesuai denga<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">n</span> budaya bangsa Indonesia sendiri.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">2. Perbedaan
kapitalisme dan sosialisme.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perbedaan antara kapitalisme dan
sosialisme adalah :<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Kapitalisme pemilikan faktor
poroduksi oleh individu,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sedangkan sosialisme dimiliki
masyarakat. Negara <br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mengklaim mewakili masyarakat.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Kapitalisme mengakui hak
individu, negara adalah<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sebagai pelindung. Sedangkan
dalam sosialisme<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>negara yang menentukan dan
mengendalikan.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>c. Dalam kapitalime tidak perlu
adanya campur tangan <br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemerintah, pengaturan
diserahkan pada pasar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sosialisme campur tangan
pemerintah mutlak dalam <br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mencapai tujuan negara.<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>d. Oleh karena adanya perbedaan yang
tajam antara<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>kedua sistrm ini, maka muncul
sistem ekonomi <br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>campuran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Sistem Ekonomi di</span> Indonesia:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Sementara <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">dalam pelaksanaan sistem</span>, semua faktor <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">produksi </span>di pegang oleh pemerintah.
Kebanyakan sistem ekonomi di dunia berada di antara dua sistem ekstrim
tersebut.<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> Di Indonesia dikenal
dengan nama sistem ekonomi campuran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dalam pengaturan</span> faktor produksi,
sistem ekonomi <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">merupakan cara
mengatur</span> produksi dan alokasi. <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dari sisi pengaturan disebut sistem</span>
perekonomian terencana (<i>planned economies</i>) memberikan hak kepada
pemerintah untuk mengatur faktor-faktor produksi dan alokasi hasil produksi.
Sementara <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">pihak lain pengaturan
diserahkan kepada pasar atau </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>perekonomian pasar (<i>market economic</i>)<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Artinya pengaturan faktor2 produksi
diserahkan kepada pasar melalui kekuatan permintaan dan penawaran.</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>P</b><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">ERKEMBNGAN
SISTEM EKONOMI DI INDONESIA</span><span lang="IN"> </span></b></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;"><b>1.
Sistem Ekonomi Demokrasi</b> </li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Sistem perekonomian Indonesia yang
berdasarkan Pancasila dan UUD 1945 disebut sistem ekonomi demokrasi. <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">S</span>istem ekonomi demokrasi dapat
didefinisikan sebagai suatu sistem perekonomian nasional yang merupakan
perwujudan dari falsafah Pancasila dan UUD 1945 yang bera<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">z</span>askan kekeluargaan dan kegotongroyongan
dari, oleh, dan untuk rakyat di bawah pimpinan dan pengawasan pemerintah.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Pada sistem demokrasi ekonomi,
pemerintah dan seluruh rakyat baik golongan ekonomi lemah maupun pengusaha
aktif dalam usaha mencapai kemakmuran bangsa. Selain itu, negara ber<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>peran dalam merencanakan, membimbing, dan
mengarahkan kegiatan perekonomian. Dengan demikian terdapat kerja sama dan
saling membantu antara pemerintah, swasta, dan masyarakat.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b>2. Sistem Ekonomi Kerakyatan </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sistem ekonomi kerakyatan berlaku di Indonesia sejak
terjadinya Reformasi di Indonesia pada tahun 1998. Pemerintah bertekad
melaksanakan sistem ekonomi kerakyatan dengan mengeluarkan ketetapan MPR<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span>RI No<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span> IV/MPR/1999, tentang Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara yang
menyatakan bahwa sistem perekonomian Indonesia adalah sistem ekonomi
kerakyatan. Pada sistem ekonomi kerakyatan, masyarakat memegang aktif dalam
kegiatan ekonomi, sedangkan pemerintah menciptakan iklim yang sehat bagi
pertumbuhan dan perkembangan dunia usaha.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">3.
PERKEMBANGAN</span><span lang="IN"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">A. PRA
KEMERDEKAAN</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Munculnya
perkembangan sistem ekonomi di Indinesia </span>terkait dengan aliran ekonomi
yang muncul sebelumnya<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">, yaitu p</span>ergulatan
kapitalisme dan sosialisme <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">yang</span>
mempengaruhi ideologi perekonomian Indonesia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Era pra-kemerdekaan</i> adalah masa
di mana kapitalisme<b> </b>mencengkeram erat Indonesia<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span> Belanda sebagai agen kapitalisme mengisi
tiap sudut tubuh bangsa Indonesia dengan ide-ide kapitalisme dari Eropa. Dengan
ide kapitalisme itu, seharusnya bangsa Indonesia bisa berada dalam kelas
pemilik modal. Tetapi, sebagai pemilik, bangsa Indonesia dirampok hak-haknya.
Sebuah bangsa yang seharusnya menjadi tuan di tanahnya sendiri, harus menjadi
budak dari sebuah bangsa asing. Hal ini berlangsung hingga bangsa Indonesia
mampu melepaskan diri dari penjajahan <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">B</span>elanda.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">B. PASCA UUD 45</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Pasal 33 UUD
1945 : </span>“Perekonomian Indonesia berdasarkan atas asas kekeluargaan.”</i> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Dengan demikian,
s</span>ubstansi pokok sistem perekonomian Indonesia paska kemerdekaan<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"> adalah ekonomi disusun berdasakan azas
kekeluargaan</span>. Lalu apa hubungan substansi ini dengan dua aliran utama
perekonomian dunia? Adakah korelasi sistem perekonomian Indonesia paska
kemerdekaan ini dengan dua mainstrem tadi? Atau malah kapitalisme dan sosialisme
sama sekali tidak berperan dalam melahirkan sistem perekonomian Indonesia?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">Apa azas
kekeluargaan itu.</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dalam UUD 1945 pasal 33 ayat 1 <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">:</span> “ Perekonomian disusun atas usaha bersama
berdasar atas asas kekeluargaan, di sini secara jelas nampak bahwa Indonesia
menjadikan asas kekeluargaan sebagai fondasi dasar perekonomiannya. Kemudian
dalam pasal 33 ayat 2 yang berbunyi, “Cabang-cabang produksi yang bagi negara
dan yang menguasai hajat hidup orang banyak dikuasai oleh negara”, dan
dilanjutkan pada pasal 33 ayat 3 yang berbunyi, “Bumi dan air dan kekayaan alam
yang terkandung di dalamnya dikuasai oleh negara dan di pergunakan untuk
sebesar-besar kemakmuran rakyat,” </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">P</span>asal <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">tsb.</span> mengandung intisari <span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bahwa</span> penguasaan negara akan
sumber-sumber daya alam dan kemudian tindak lanjutnya adalah kembali pada
rakyat, secara tersirat di sini nampak adanya <i>kolektivitas</i> bersama dalam
sebuah negara. Meskipun dalam dua pasal ini tidak terlalu jelas kandungan asas
kekeluargaanya, namun melihat pasal sebelumnya, kedua pasal inipun akan jadi
terkait dengan asas kekeluargaan itu.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">4. KAPITALISME DI
INDONESIA</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">K</span>apitalisme
dan sistem ekonomi Indonesia memiliki kaitan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>cukup erat, seperti halnya hubungan sosialisme dengan sistem ekonomi
indonesia . Hal ini juga dipertegas dalam UUD’45, dalam pasal 27 ayat 2 yang
telah dibahas di atas. Selain ada unsur sosialisme ternyata dalam pasal ini
juga mengandung unsur kapitalisme. Hak untuk memilik pekerjaan ternyata juga
termasuk hak kepemilikan yang merupakan substansi kapitalisme. Selain itu dalam
pasal ini juga tersirat bahwa kewajiban negara adalah sebagai agen pelindung
individu-individu sebagai warga negara. Tanggung jawab negara terhadap hak-hak
individu ini adalah bagian dari substansi kapitalisme yang menjadikan
individu-individu sebagai subjek.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">5. PELAKU DALAM
SISTEM EKONOMI INDONESIA</span><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Terdapat tiga pelaku utama yang menjadi kekuatan sistem
perekonomian di Indonesia, yaitu perusahaan negara (pemerintah), perusahaan
swasta, dan koperasi. Ketiga pelaku ekonomi tersebut menjalankan kegiatan
ekonomi dalam sistem ekonomi kerakyatan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>1. Pemerintah (BUMN)</b><br />
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">P</span>emerintah sebagai pelaku
kegiatan ekonomi berarti pemerintah melakukan kegiatan konsumsi, produksi, dan
distribusi.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>2. Swasta (BUMS)</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
BUMS adalah salah satu kekuatan ekonomi di Indonesia. BUMS
didirikan dalam rangka ikut mengelola sumber daya alam Indonesia<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>3. Koperasi</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Badan usaha yang beranggotakan orang-orang atau badan hokum
sebagai gerakan ekonomi rakyat yang berdasar a<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">z</span>as kekeluargaan.</div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-54928154504793371482012-03-07T17:18:00.000+07:002012-03-07T17:25:06.533+07:00KONSEP DAN MAKNA PEMBANGUNAN<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>PEREKONOMIAN INDONESIA </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in;">PENDAHULUAN</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tugas dan Fungsi Pembangunan :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dalam ilmu
ekonomi ada<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5 tugas dan fungsi </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pembangunan : </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Apa ( what ),
bagaimana<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( How) dan Untuk </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>apa/siapa (
who to / to to whom)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Bagaimana
mempertahankan ( Stability )dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>meningkatkan
( Growth )</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Catatan</b> : ke depan ditambah lagi How to Great atau
Good to Great<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(
bagaimana menjadi hebat atau baik menjadi hebat ) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Contoh di Indonesia:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dalam menghadapi berbagai masalah dan perkembangan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
yang terjadi 20 dan memasuki abad 21 :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Krisis ekonomi
yang terjadi sejak tahun 1997 yang selalu<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menghilangkan
makna pembangunan.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Trend globalisasi
yang selalu dipakai<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>negara-negara sedang
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>berkembang
sebagai alat untuk emerging markets, sehingga </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sering
terdapat resiko dalam mengurangi makna pembangunan itu. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reformasi dan keinginan melaksanakan demokrasi.
Keinginan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>cepat-cepat
untuk menngejar ketertinggalan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4. Kecenderungan
melaksanakan pradigma otonomi daerah yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sering merubah
pola pikir menjadi terkotak-kotak.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>5. Alasan
melaksanakan Good Governance </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>PRINSIP DASAR
PEMBANGUNAN</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
Ekonomi merupakan salah satu indikator penting dalam analisa pembangunan
ekonomi suatu negara atau daerah </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi merupakan suatu indikator keberhasilan suatu negara atau daerah dalam
periode tertentu apakah mencapai kemajuan atau kemunduran </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi dapat memberikan gambaran aktivitas ekonomi suatu negara atau daerah
menjadi berkembang atau mengalami kemunduruan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
ekonomi dapat menjelaskan penggunaan faktor- faktor produksi telah dijalankan
secara efisien dan efektif </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. MAKNA PEMBANGUNAN EKONOMI</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1. Pembangunan adalah suatu proses jangka panjang yang
menyangkut keterkaitan timbal balik antara faktor non-ekonomi dan ekonomi dalam
mencapai pertumbuhan secara berkelanjutan ( terus menerus ).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. Pembangunan adalah menghilangkan ketidaksempurnaan pasar.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ketidaksempurnaan
pasar adalah merupakan penghalang pembangunan, maka tugas pembangunan adalah
menciptakan kondisi pasar menjadi kondusif ( ke arah perfect markets ).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. Pembangunan adalah upaya industrialisasi. Melepaskan
ketergantungan kepada sektor primer (traditional sectors) dirubah menjadi modern
sectors).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Catatan : perdebatan ( pro dan kontra ) sering pada point 3
ini, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>sehingga makna yang sebenarnya dalam point 1 dan 2 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>menjadi
kelupaan. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>4. INDIKATOR UMUM YANG DIGUNAKAN </b><b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">A. PDB DAN PDRB</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alasan digunakan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. PDB/PDRB adalah jumlah dari nilai tambah
(value added ) yang </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dihasilkan
dari seluruh aktivitas perekonomian </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. PDB/PDRB
dihitung atas dasar aliran barang-barang dan jasa-jasa dalam </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>serta
faktor-faktor produksi dalam periode tertentu. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. PDB/PDRB
menyangkut hasil aktivitas ekonomi keseluruhan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>dalam suatu </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>wilayah/region tertentu </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">B. Pendapatan
per Kapita</span></b><span lang="IN"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">·<span lang="IN"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Angka rata-rata kenaikan riel nilai
produksi yang dihasilkan dalam </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>suatu negara/daerah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2.
Angka rata-rata pendapatan masyarakat dari suatu negara/daerah </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dalam periode tertentu. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3. Gambaran riel tingkat kesejahteraan
masyarakat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;">C. Angka yang
sering digunakan adalah pendapatan per kapita harga konstan, karena dalam
perhitungan harga konstan telah menghilangkan pengaruh perubahan harga dalam
harga berlaku (inflasi, distorsi harga, mark up harga )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="IN" style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-ansi-language: IN;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b><span lang="IN">5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>CARA PERHITUNGAN PERTUMBUHAN </span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Metode
Sederhana </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Menghitung
pertumbuhan tahunan :</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R ( t-1,
t )<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>= <u>PDRBt - PDRBt-1</u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>x 100 %</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>PDRBt-1 </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Menghitung
pertumbuhan yang lebih panjang :</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>R = <u>r (
t-1 - t ) + r ( t<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>t+1 ) + r ( t+1 - t+2 )</u><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Metode
End to End :</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Cara
rata-rata</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>r =<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>( <u>PDRBt ) </u>1/n<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>-1 x 100 % </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>PDRB t-1<b> </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Compounding
factors</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pt = P0 ( 1 + r ) n-1</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b>Metode Regresi </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1. Trend<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ln PDRB =
A + r t</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2. Least Squares </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ln PDRB =
A + r Ln X1 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6. Contoh : PERTUMBUHAN SEKTORAL</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertumbuhan
Ekonomi dapat dibedakan antara :</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Pertumbuhan
ekonomi secara keseluruhan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Pertumbuhan sektoral
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1.
Pertumbuhan antar sektor </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2.
Pertumbuhan antar daerah </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Contoh
:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a. Laju
pertumbuhan ekonomi Kalimantan Timur tahun 2000 - 2003 sekitar </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>4,93 %<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>per tahun artinya kenaikan PDRB berdasarkan
harga konstan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mengalami kenaikan sebesar 4,93 %<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>per tahun </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>b. Laju
pertumbuhan sektoral dilihat menurut sektor lapangan usaha,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>misalnya
sektor pertanian 1,6 % artinya PDRB Kalimantan Timur </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>didorong oleh
pertumbuhan sektor pertanian<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sekitar 1,6
%. Selanjutnya </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sektor
industri dan perdagangan 17, 5 %, artinya PDRB Aceh </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pertumbuhan
sektor indutri<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dan perdagangan sangat
dominan dalam </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mendorong
kenaikan PDRB.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hal yang sama
dapat dilakukan kepada daerah kabupaten dan kota, dalam </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Propinsi
Kalimantan Timur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>BEBERAPA
KELEMAHAN PDRB <br />
DALAM MENGUKUR PEREKONOMIAN DAERAH </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>PDRB tidak mengukur kegiatan illegal, pada
hal kegiatan ekonomi illegal cukup besar sebagai penghasil pendapatan. Misalnya
usaha penambangan tanpa izin ( peti)batu bara, perdagangan obat2an, prostitusi,
usaha perjudian dan lain-lain.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>PDRB tidak mencatat (unreported activities)
laporan keperluan pajak </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>PDRB tidak mencatat (non-marketed
activities), misalnya ibu rumah tangga, pembantu rumah tangga dari kelompok
untuk tidak dibayar (famili sendiri)</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">l<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><b>PDRB tidak memperhitugkan (economic bads)
akibat pengaruh dis-economics </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Oleh karena itu, dalam analisa ekonomi daerah ditambahkan </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
indikator lain, yaitu sekarang<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ada Human Development Index, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
yang lebih populer disebut HDI. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-50657548785886143822012-03-06T22:19:00.003+07:002012-03-06T22:19:38.670+07:00Kebijakan Perencanaan Daerah: RPJPD dan RPJMD<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Aspek Perubahan:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Dunia
terus berubah, jangan sampai perubahan tidak dikelola sehingga dapat merugikan.
Mengelola perubahan dengan perencanaan</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Aspek ekonomi:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Kegagalan
pasar yang berakibat adanya pengangguran, dan masalah-masalah dalam
perekonomian. Diperlukan campur tangan pemerintah lewat kebijakan publik dengan
pembuatan perencanaan-perencanaan dalam mencari solusinya.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Menurut UU 25/2004:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Suatu proses untuk menentukan tindakan masa
depan yang tepat, melalui urutan pilihan, dengan memperhitungkan sumber daya
yang tersedia. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Menurut Thomas L Saaty (1992):</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic;">Planning is a thinking and
social process of aligning what is deduced to be the likely outcome of
situation, given current actions, policies, and environment forces, with what
is perceived as desirable outcome which requires new actions and policies.</span></span></div>
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</div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #ff3399; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">PERENCANAAN DAERAH</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">1.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Perencanaan </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">ekonomi daerah disusun
sesuai dengan kewenangan daerah sebagai satu kesatuan dalam sistem perencanaan
ekonomi nasional</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">2.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Berdasarkan dimensi waktu
terdiri atas perenc. Jangka panjang, perenc. Jangka menengah dan perencanaan
jangka pendek (tahunan)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">3.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Dimaksudkan untuk menjami
keterkaitan antara perencanaan & penganggaran, pelaksanaan, evaluasi dan
pengendalian</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.42in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.42in;">RUANG LINGKUP PERENCANAAN
PEMBANGUNAN DAERAH</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.42in;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">1.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Rencana </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Pembangunan Jangka
Panjang Daerah (RPJPD) = 20 tahun</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">2.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Rencana Pembangunan Jangka
Menengah Daerah (RPJMD) = 5 tahun</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">3.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Rencana Strategis Satuan
Kerja Perangkat Daerah (Renstra SKPD) = 5 tahun</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">4.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Rencana Kerja Pemerintah
Daerah (RKPD) = 1 tahun</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">5.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Rencana Kerja (RK-SKPD) = 1
tahun</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.5in;">CAKUPAN PENYUSUNAN RPJPD</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 80%; text-indent: -0.5in;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Pengumpulan </span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">data
primer dan sekunder.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses identifikasi berbagai permasalahan, hambatan, peluang,
dan tantangan yang saat ini terjadi.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses dan analisis kondisi eksisting SDA, SDM, potensi
ekonomi, tingkat perkembangan sosial budaya, kondisi politik, hukum serta
tingkat keamanan dan ketertiban. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses pengkajian kondisi sektor ekonomi unggulan dalam
rangka mendapatkan peta potensi termasuk Potensi PAD & kapasitas ekonomi
daerah. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses pengkajian produk unggulan, potensi, permasalahan dan
prospek ke depan serta konsep pengembangannya.</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">
</span></span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: id; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .42in; margin-top: 7.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -.42in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Analisis keterkaitan antar sektor dan produk unggulan agar
dapat diperoleh peta potensi ekonomi daerah.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses perencanaan pembangunan yang lebih rasional,
sistematis, dan dapat diukur serta formulasi strategi, prioritas dan kebijakan
pembangunan dengan mempertimbangkan azas berkelanjutan dan keterpaduan.</span><span style="color: #006666; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #000066; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 110%; text-indent: -0.42in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div style="direction: ltr; language: id; line-height: 80%; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: .42in; margin-top: 7.2pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -.42in; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #000066; font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 110%; text-indent: -0.42in;">CAKUPAN PENYUSUNAN RPJMD</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold; line-height: 110%; text-indent: -0.42in;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">identifikasi
dan analisis permasalahan-permasalahan aktual pembangunan untuk periode waktu 5
tahun ke depan.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses identifikasi dan analisis kondisi, potensi SDA, SDM
dan berbagai asset baik </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">tangible assets</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;"> (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">hardware</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">) maupun </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">intangible
assets</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;"> (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">software</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">) yang dimiliki Pemerintah
Daerah. </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Proses formulasi kebijakan indikatif (</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">policies
formulation</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">) untuk merumuskan arah dan
kebijakan pembangunan dan pengelolaan keuangan daerah untuk 5 tahun mendatang.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Penyusunan arah kebijakan dan koordinasi pembangunan lintas
satuan kerja perangkat daerah untuk 5 tahun ke depan.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #336666; font-family: Wingdings;">¢</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">Perumusan program lintas kewilayahan dalam Pemerintah Daerah
termasuk kerangka regulasi dan skema awal pendanaan yang bersifat indikatif
untuk 5 tahun mendatang.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-weight: bold;">
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.38in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.38in;">Perencanaan Gagal?</span><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.38in;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Bahan
</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">baku perencanaan (Data) kurang akurat</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Model
perencanaan tepat tetapi implementasinya salah, ex: karena SDM tidak mempunyai
kompetensi baik dalam membuat perencanaan atau dalam melaksanakan.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Model
perencanaan salah, sehingga perencanaan dan implementasinya mengacu pada model
yang sudah tidak betul, sehingga terjadi kegagalan dalam perencanaan.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.58in;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.58in;">Analisis Kritis dalam Perencanaan Daerah</span><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.58in;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">1.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Data </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">yang
kurang akurat/sulit diperoleh secara lengkap</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2;">2.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Pada saat penyusunan dokumen perencanaan,
dokumen perencanaan yang lebih tinggi belum di sahkan</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> contoh:
RPJP Nasional dan RPJPD Provinsi</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">3. Ada
acuan yang berbeda saat penetapan RPJMD apakah dengan Perda atau Keputusan
Kepala Daerah</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> UU 25/2004: Peraturan Kepala Daerah</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> UU 32/2004: Peraturan Daerah</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">4. Ketidak sesuaian antara petunjuk teknis
penyusunan dokumen perencanaan dengan dasar hukum yang baru.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> contoh:
</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;">à</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">SE
Mendagri No. 050/2020/SJ tanggal 11 Agustus 2005 tentang Petunjuk Penyusunan
Dokumen RPJPD dan RPJMD</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Acuan
tersebut sistematikanya kurang sesuai pada saat menterjemahkan program/kegiatan
sesuai aturan yang baru yang berdasarkan urusan wajib dan pilihan, yang tadinya
berdasarkan fungsi</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #330033;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Rekomendasi</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Data harus diusahakan seakurat mungkin
(seragamkan definisi), penataan data dalam setiap lembaga.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Koordinasi antar departemen sehingga,
landasan hukum perencanaan tidak overlapping</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Pengesahan RPJP Nasional harus disegerakan,
karena RPJPD mengacu kepada RPJP Nasional</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: #b2b2b2; font-family: Wingdings;">n</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Petunjuk teknis dalam penyusunan dokumen
perencanaan harus mengacu/disesuaikan kepada peraturan yang baru.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial; line-height: 90%; text-indent: -0.38in;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">
</span></span></div>
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<br />Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3921022951679267304.post-17521631291303653372012-03-06T22:07:00.000+07:002012-03-06T22:07:57.121+07:00<br />
1<br />
1.1. LATAR BELAKANG<br />
asyarakat Indonesia pada dekade milenium ketiga ini adalah masyarakat yang banyak<br />
mengalami perubahan di berbagai bidang. Perubahan itu bukan saja mengenai<br />
perubahan struktural melainkan juga terjadi pada aspek sosial, politik, budaya dan<br />
ekonomi.Perubahan di segala sendi kehidupan bangsa tersebut merupakan<br />
konsekuensi logis bergulirnya semangat reformasi, yang selanjutnya muncul desakan<br />
penyesuaian terhadap bangunan sistem nasional dalam penyelenggaraan negara supaya lebih<br />
berpihak pada kepentingan rakyat, karena rakyat sadar bahwa konstitusi telah mengamanatkan<br />
agar pembangunan nasional dilaksanakan secara terencana, sistematis, dan berkesinambungan<br />
dalam rangka meningkatkan kesejahteraan lahir batin.<br />
Sejalan dengan dinamika yang berkembang pada tingkat nasional telah menimbulkan desakan<br />
pula dari daerah-daerah, yang menuntut reformasi di bidang pembangunan. Daerah-daerah<br />
menuntut agar adanya keseimbangan pembangunan antara pusat dan daerah, dengan istilah<br />
otonomi daerah. Akibatnya, setiap ada perubahan yang berkembang di tingkat nasional<br />
langsung berdampak ke daerah. Begitu pula halnya dengan tuntutan refomasi di tingkat pusat<br />
otomatis akan muncul semangat yang sama di tingkat daerah.<br />
Berangkat dari semangat reformasi dalam menyikapi dinamika yang berkembang tersebut, maka<br />
dituntut secara konsisten mengelola tantangan menjadi peluang agar tercapai tujuan<br />
pembangunan berikut hasilnya. Selanjutnya terus-menerus melakukan koreksi, modifikasi dan<br />
prospeksi terhadap kebrjakan-kebijakan strategis kedepan dengan penuh perhitungan<br />
berdasarkan kondisi objektif yang muncul di tengah – tengah masyarakat daerah.<br />
Pelaksanaan kebijakan desentralisasi dan otonomi daerah sesuai UU No. 22 Tahun 1999 yang<br />
kemudian direvisi dengan UU No. 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah dan UU No.<br />
25 Tahun 1999 yang kemudian direvisi dengan UU No. 33 Tahun 2004 tentang Perimbangan<br />
Keuangan antara Pemerintah Pusat dan Pemerintahan Daerah yang secara serentak<br />
diberlakukan di seluruh Indonesia sejak awal tahun 2001 secara positif dipandang sebagai model<br />
menuju masa depan bangsa yang lebih baik. Dengan kebijakan desentralisasi dan otonomi<br />
daerah tersebut diharapkan dapat dijadikan misi untuk mencapai cita-cita Bangsa Indonesia<br />
seperti yang diamanatkan dalam Pembukaan UUD Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945.<br />
Melaksanakan Otonomi Daerah secara luas dan nyata harus disertai tanggung jawab yang juga<br />
nyata dan dilaksanakan oleh seluruh pelaku pembangunan secara solid baik ditingkat lokal,<br />
regional maupun secara nasional, dari tingkat administrasi yang paling kecil (kelurahan/desa),<br />
kecamatan , kabupaten dan kota, provinsi dan negara. Tanggung jawab yang secara sadar dan<br />
teguh dilaksanakan pada setiap tugas sesuai dengan lingkup tugas yang diemban itulah yang<br />
2<br />
disebut sebagai suatu komitmen. Komitmen-komitmen inilah yang terdapat di dalam Rencana<br />
Pembangunan Jangka Menengah (RPJM).<br />
RPJM disusun dengan maksud menyediakan sebuah dokumen perencanaan komprehensif lima<br />
tahunan, yang akan digunakan sebagai acuan dalam penyusunan Rencana Strategis Satuan<br />
Kerja Perangkat Daerah (Renstra SKPD), dan Rencana Kerja Pemerintah Daerah (RKPD)<br />
sesuai dengan UU No. 25 tahun 2004 tentang Sistem Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional dan<br />
UU No. 32 tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah. Sebagai dokumen perencanaan lima<br />
tahunan, RPJM merupakan bagian dari Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Daerah (RPJP<br />
Daerah), yang berkedudukan sebagai dokumen perencanaan induk dengan rentang waktu 20<br />
tahunan.<br />
Acuan utama dalam menyusun adalah rumusan Visi, Misi, Arah Kebijakan dan Rencana<br />
Program Indikatif Kepala Daerah/Wakil Kepala Daerah terpilih, yang telah disampaikan<br />
kepada masyarakat pemilih dan dalam Sidang Paripurna DPRD dalam tahapan kampanye<br />
pemilihan pasangan Calon Kepala Daerah/Wakil Kepala Daerah secara langsung. Disamping<br />
itu, penyusunan RPJM Daerah juga mengacu pada RPJP Nasional, RPJM provinsi, dan berbagai<br />
kebijakan dan prioritas program Pemerintah dan Pemerintah Provinsi. Tujuan merujuk semua<br />
dokumen perencanaan dimaksud adalah untuk menjamin terciptanya sinergi kebijakan dan<br />
sinkronisasi program secara vertikal antar tingkat pemerintahan yang berbeda.<br />
Selanjutnya, secara empiris RPJM mengacu kepada perkembangan statistik regional dan lokal,<br />
terutama data tentang PDRB dan (1) statistik berbagai fungsi pemerintahan di bidang ekonomi,<br />
seperti lapangan pekerjaan utama dan tingkat pendapatan rata-rata masyarakat, keberadaan<br />
potensi sektor ungulan daerah yang dapat dikembangkan dalam rangka memacu laju produksi<br />
lokal dan penciptaan lapangan kerja baru, keberadaan sektor informal dan kandungan potensi<br />
sumberdaya daerah; (2) statistik fungsi-fungsi pemerintahan di bidang sosial budaya, seperti<br />
kondisi tingkat kesehatan rata-rata masyarakat dan indeks pembangunan manusia, angka<br />
kemiskinan, tingkat pengangguran, angka partisipasi kasar dan angka partisipasi murni<br />
pendidikan dasar dan menengah; (3) statistik bidang pemerintahan umum, seperti pelayanan<br />
umum pemerintahan kepada masyarakat dan (4) statistik bidang fisik prasarana, seperti polapola<br />
penataan ruang dan kawasan andalan, kantong-kantong kemiskinan dan kawasan tertinggal<br />
serta kondisi ekologi dan lingkungan hidup daerah dan (5) kapasitas fiskal dan keuangan daerah.<br />
RPJM merupakan dokumen publik yang merangkum daftar rencana kegiatan lima tahunan<br />
dibidang pelayanan umum pemerintahan, karena itu proses penyusunannya dilakukan melalui<br />
serangkaian forum musyawarah perencanaan partisipatif, dengan melibatkan seluruh unsur<br />
pelaku pembangunan setempat. Atas dasar pertimbangan itu, maka RPJM semula merupakan<br />
rumusan Visi, Misi, Arah Kebijakan dan Rencana Indikatif Program pasangan Bupati/Wakil<br />
Bupati terpilih, berkembang menjadi muatan matriks rencana program dan kegiatan lima<br />
tahunan yang merupakan hasil kesepakatan seluruh unsur pelaku pembangunan daerah,<br />
dengan tetap memperhatikan kebijakan dan program strategis nasional dan provinsi.<br />
Pada tanggal 25 Juni 2005, Kabupaten Musi Rawas menyelenggarakan Pemilihan Kepala<br />
Daerah secara langsung oleh rakyat yang diikuti oleh pelantikan Bupati dan Wakil Bupati pada<br />
tanggal 5 September 2005. Karena untuk memenuhi ketentuan undang-undang sistem<br />
perencanaan nasional, Pemerintah Kabupaten Musi Rawas harus menyusun rangkaian dokumen<br />
3<br />
perencanaan daerah, salah satunya adalah RPJM Daerah, yang berfungsi sebagai penjabaran<br />
dari RPJP Daerah dan memuat visi dan misi Bupati/Wakil Bupati terpilih, gambaran umum<br />
kondisi masa kini, gambaran umum kondisi yang diharapkan, analisis lingkungan internal dan<br />
eksternal, arah kebijakan, strategi dan indikasi rencana program lima tahunan.<br />
RPJM atau dokumen Perencanaan Daerah yang disebut RPJM KABUPATEN MUSI<br />
RAWAS 2005 – 2010, memuat rencana 5 (lima) tahunan yang menggambarkan Visi, Misi dan<br />
Tujuan, Strategi, Program dan Kegiatan Kabupaten Musi Rawas dalam rentang waktu lima<br />
tahun. Dengan RPJM diharapkan Kabupaten Musi Rawas dapat lebih fokus dalam<br />
melaksanakan program-program dan kegiatan Pembangunan Daerah untuk visi lima tahun ke<br />
depan.<br />
1.2. PENGERTIAN RPJM<br />
RPJM adalah adalah dokumen perencanaan untuk periode lima tahun. Selanjutnya pada pasal 5<br />
ayat 2 UU No 25 Tahun 2004 dijelaskan bahwa RPJM Daerah merupakan penjabaran visi, misi<br />
dan program Kepala Daerah yang penyusunannya berpedoman pada RPJP Daerah dan<br />
memperhatikan RPJM Nasional, memuat arah kebijakan keuangan daerah, strategi<br />
pembangunan daerah, kebijakan umum dan Program Satuan Kerja Perangkat Daerah (SKPD),<br />
lintas SKPD, dan program kewilayahan disertai dengan rencana-rencana kerja dalam kerangka<br />
regulasi dan kerangka pendanaan yang bersifat indikatif.<br />
1.3. Maksud dan Tujuan<br />
Maksud penyusunan RPJM Kabupaten Musi Rawas 2005-2010 adalah menyediakan acuan<br />
resmi bagi Pemerintah Daerah dan DPRD dalam menyusun Renstra SKPD, Renja SKPD<br />
sekaligus merupakan acuan dalam penetapan tahapan program dan kegiatan tahunan daerah<br />
yang akan dibahas dalam forum Musyawarah Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah (Musrenbang)<br />
secara berjenjang. Karena itu, isi dan substansinya mencakup indikasi rencana program dan<br />
kegiatan, sumber pembiayaan, baik APBN, APBD Provinsi maupun APBD Kabupaten.<br />
Berdasarkan pertimbangan ini, maka RPJM Kabupaten Musi Rawas 2005-2010 ini disusun<br />
dengan tujuan sebagai berikut:<br />
1. Menyediakan satu acuan resmi bagi seluruh jajaran pemerintah daerah dan DPRD dalam<br />
menentukan prioritas program dan kegiatan tahunan yang akan dibiayai dari APBD<br />
Kabupaten, APBD Provinsi dan sumber pembiayaan APBN.<br />
2. Menyediakan satu tolok ukur untuk mengukur dan melakukan evaluasi kinerja tahunan<br />
setiap satuan kerja perangkat daerah.<br />
3. Menjabarkan gambaran tentang kondisi umum daerah sekarang dalam konstelasi regional<br />
dan nasional sekaligus memahami arah dan tujuan yang ingin dicapai dalam rangka<br />
mewujudkan visi dan misi daerah.<br />
4. Memudahkan seluruh jajaran aparatur Pemerintah Daerah dan DPRD Kabupaten Musi<br />
Rawas dalam mencapai tujuan dengan cara menyusun program dan kegiatan secara<br />
terpadu, terarah dan terukur.<br />
4<br />
5. Memudahkan seluruh jajaran aparatur Pemda dan DPRD Kabupaten Musi Rawas untuk<br />
memahami dan menilai arah kebijakan, program dan kegiatan operasional tahunan dalam<br />
rentang waktu lima tahunan.<br />
1.4. Landasan Hukum Penyusunan RPJM Kabupaten. Musi Rawas 2005 - 2010<br />
Penyusunan RPJM Kabupaten Musi Rawas 2006-2010 ini, didasari sejumlah peraturanperaturan<br />
sebagai rujukan, yaitu :<br />
1. Undang-Undang No. 17 Tahun 2003 tentang Keuangan Negara (Lembaran Negara<br />
Republik Indonesia Tahun 2003 No. 47, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik<br />
Indonesia No. 4286).<br />
2. Undang-Undang No. 1 tahun 2004 tentang Perbendaharaan Negara.<br />
3. Undang-Undang No. 15 tahun 2004 tentang Pemeriksaan Pengelolaan dan Tanggung<br />
jawab Keuangan Negara. ( Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2004 No. 66<br />
Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia No.4400)<br />
4. Undang-Undang No. 25 tahun 2004 tentang Sistem Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional.<br />
5. Undang-Undang No. 32 Tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah (Lembaran Negara<br />
Republik Indonesia Tahun 2004 No. 125, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik<br />
Indonesia No. 4437).<br />
6. Undang-undang No. 33 Tahun 2004 tentang Perimbangan Keuangan antara Pemerintah<br />
Pusat dan Pemerintah Daerah (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2004<br />
Nomor 126, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 4438).<br />
7. Peraturan Pemerintah No. 25 tahun 2000 tentang Kewenangan Pemerintah dan<br />
Kewenangan Provinsi Sebagai Daerah Otonom.<br />
8. Peraturan Pemerintah No. 20 tahun 2001 tentang Pembinaan dan Pengawasan<br />
Penyelenggaraan Pemerintahan Daerah.<br />
9. Peraturan Pemerintah No. 56 tahun 2001 tentang Pelaporan Penyelenggaraan<br />
Pemerintahan Daerah, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia No. 4124.<br />
10. Per Pres No 7 Tahun 2005 tentang Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional<br />
Republik Indonesia;<br />
11. PP No ...Tahun 2005 tentang RPJP Nasional<br />
12. Perpres No 39 Tahun 2005 tentang Rencana Kerja Pemerintah Tahun 2006.<br />
13. Peraturan Daerah Provinsi Sumatera Selatan No 26./Perda/SS/2003 tentang Rencana<br />
Strategis Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Sumatera Selatan 2003-2008.<br />
1.5. Tahapan Penyusunan<br />
Berdasarkan Pasal 8 UU No 25 Tahun 2004 tentang Sistem Perencanaan Pembangunan<br />
Nasional, bahwa tahapan perencanaan pembangunan adalah sebagai berikut:<br />
- Penyusunan Rencana<br />
- Penetapan rencana<br />
- Pengendalian pelaksanaan rencana<br />
- Evaluasi pelaksanaan rencana.<br />
RPJM Kabupaten Musi Rawas 2005 – 2010 disusun melalui urutan kegiatan sebagai berikut:<br />
- penyiapan rancangan awal rencana pembangunan;<br />
- penyiapan rancangan rencana kerja;<br />
5<br />
- musyawarah perencanaan pembangunan dan<br />
- penyusunan rancangan akhir rencana pembangunan.<br />
Bertitik tolak dari urutan kegiatan di atas Kepala Bappeda menyiapkan rancangan awal RPJM<br />
sebagai penjabaran visi, misi dan program Kepala Daerah ke dalam strategi pembangunan<br />
daerah, kebijakan umum, program prioritas Kepala daerah dan arah kebijakan keuangan<br />
daerah. Dalam menyusun rancangan RPJM Daerah tersebut, Kepala Bappeda menggunakan<br />
rancangan Renstra SKPD dan berpedoman pada RPJP Daerah. Selanjutnya rancangan RPJM<br />
Daerah dijadikan bahan bagi Kepala Bappeda untuk menyelenggarakan Musyawarah<br />
Perencanaan Pembangunan (Musrenbang) Jangka Menengah Daerah. Hasil dari Musrenbang<br />
tersebut, akan dijadikan dasar bagi Kepala Bappeda untuk menyusun rancangan akhir RPJM,<br />
untuk kemudian ditetapkan dengan Peraturan Kepala Daerah paling lambat 3 (tiga) bulan<br />
setelah pelantikan Bupati yang terpilih.<br />
1.6. HUBUNGAN RPJM KABUPATEN MUSI RAWAS 2005 – 2010 DENGAN<br />
DOKUMEN PERENCANAAN LAINNYA<br />
BAGAN 1<br />
KETERKAITAN DOKUMEN PERENCANAAN NASIONAL DAN DAERAH<br />
RPJP<br />
NASIONA<br />
RPJP<br />
DAERAH<br />
RENSTR<br />
A<br />
RPJM<br />
NASIONA<br />
RPJM<br />
DAERAH<br />
RENSTRA<br />
SKPD<br />
RENJA<br />
K/L<br />
RKP<br />
RKA-K/L<br />
RAPBN<br />
RAPBD<br />
RKA<br />
SKPD<br />
RINCIAN<br />
APBN<br />
APBN<br />
APBD<br />
RINCIAN<br />
APBD<br />
UU. No. 25/04<br />
SPPN<br />
PEMERINTAH<br />
DAERAH<br />
PEMERINTAH<br />
PUSAT<br />
RKP<br />
DAERAH<br />
RENJA<br />
SKPD<br />
UU. No. 17/03<br />
KN<br />
Diserasikan melalui<br />
Pedoman<br />
Pedoman<br />
Pedoma<br />
n<br />
Pedoman<br />
Pedoman<br />
Pedoma<br />
n<br />
Pedoman<br />
Dijabarkan<br />
Dijabarkan<br />
Pedoma<br />
n<br />
Memperhatikan<br />
Acuan<br />
Acuan<br />
Acuan<br />
Pedoman<br />
6<br />
1.7. POLA PIKIR DAN PROSES PENYUSUNANNYA<br />
Untuk memudahkan pemahaman terhadap substansi dasar dari RPJM Kabupaten Musi Rawas<br />
2005-2010 ini serta arah kebijakan yang ditempuh dalam rangka mewujudkan visi dan misi,<br />
maka disusun pola pikir sebagaimana bagan berikut ini.<br />
BAGAN 2<br />
POLA PIKIR DAN PROSES PENYUSUNAN RPJM KABUPATEN MUSI RAWAS 2005-2010<br />
Persiapan Awal<br />
Kesepakatan Internal<br />
Komitmen Bupati/Wkl Bupati<br />
Komitmen<br />
Stakeholders<br />
& Mandat<br />
VISI-MISI<br />
Program Prioritas<br />
Rencana Tindak<br />
Implementasi<br />
(RKPD)<br />
Kesepakatan Eksternal<br />
Dukungan<br />
Perguruan Tinggi<br />
Penentuan<br />
Stakeholders<br />
Strategic Planning<br />
(RPJM-Daerah)<br />
Action Plan<br />
(Renja SKPD/RKPD)<br />
Pelaksanaan Tahunan<br />
RPJM<br />
Isue Strategis &<br />
Skenario<br />
Analisa Kekuatan dan<br />
Kelemahan (SW)<br />
KEBIJAKAN UMUM<br />
&<br />
Analisa Peluang dan<br />
Ancaman (OT)<br />
7<br />
1.8. KERANGKA PENULISAN<br />
Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Daerah ini disusun dengan sistematika penulisan<br />
sebagai berikut:<br />
BAGIAN I. UMUM<br />
Bab 1. Pendahuluan<br />
Bab 2. Kondisi existing Kabupaten Musi Rawas<br />
BAGIAN II.<br />
PERMASALAHAN DAN AGENDA PEMBANGUNAN<br />
KABUPATEN MUSI RAWAS 2005 – 2010<br />
Bab 3. VISI, MISI dan Agenda Pembangunan Kabupaten Musi Rawas<br />
Tahun 2005 - 2010<br />
A. Permasalahan Pembangunan Kabupaten Musi Rawas<br />
B. Visi Pembangunan Kabupaten Musi Rawas Tahun 2005 – 2010<br />
C. Misi Pembangunan Kabupaten Musi Rawas Tahun 2005 – 2010<br />
D. Strategi dan Arah Kebijakan Pembangunan Musi Rawas 2005 – 2010<br />
E. Agenda Pembangunan Kabupaten Musi Rawas 2005–2010<br />
BAGIAN III<br />
AGENDA PENINGKATAN KESEJAHTERAAN MASYARAKAT<br />
Bab 4. Penanggulangan Kemiskinan<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 5. Peningkatan Kualitas Pelayanan Pendidikan<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 6. Peningkatan Kualitas Pelayanan Kesehatan<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 7. Pembangunan Perdesaan dan Permukiman<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
8<br />
Bab 8. Pengurangan Ketimpangan Pembangunan Antar Wilayah<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 9. Peningkatan Kualitas Kehidupan Beragama<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 10. Peningkatan Perlindungan dan Kesejahteraan Sosial<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 11. Pembangunan Kependudukan, Pemuda dan Olahraga<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 12. Peningkatan Kemampuan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab.13. Ketenagakerjaan<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
BAGIAN IV<br />
AGENDA PENINGKATAN PEREKONOMIAN DAERAH<br />
Bab 14. Pengembangan Infrastruktur Strategis sebagai stimulan peningkatan<br />
perekonomian daerah<br />
1. Pembangunan Pembangkit Listrik Skala Besar<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
2. Pengembangan Bandara Silampari<br />
9<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
3. Pengembangan Irigasi Skala Besar<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
4. Pembangunan Terminal Peti Kemas<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
5. Pembangunan Pusat Pemerintahan dan Ibukota Kabupaten<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
6. Pembangunan Jalan Lintas Provinsi<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 15. Pengembangan Pertanian Sebagai Lumbung Pangan<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 16. Pengembangan Agropolitan Center berikut Lima Distrik Agropolitan dan<br />
Agroindustri<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 17. Pengembangan Infrastruktur Daerah pendukung Agropolitan<br />
10<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
B. Program<br />
Bab 18. Pemberdayaan Koperasi, UMKM, Perdagangan, Agrobisnis dan Industri<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 19. Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan Hidup<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 20. Pengembangan Pariwisata dan Budaya<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
BAGIAN V<br />
AGENDA PENINGKATAN PELAYANAN PUBLIK<br />
Bab 21. Penerapan Tata Pemerintahan yang baik (Good Governance)<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 22. Pengembangan Kapasitas Kelembagaan, Sumberdaya Aparatur dan Keuangan<br />
Daerah<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 23. Pengembangan Jarinagn Promosi, Pembiayaan dan Investasi Daerah<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
Bab 24. Penerapan Tertib Hukum, menciptakan Ketertiban Umum dan Rasa Aman<br />
A. Permasalahan<br />
B. Sasaran<br />
C. Arah Kebijakan<br />
D. Program<br />
11<br />
BAGIAN VI<br />
POTRET KABUPATEN MUSI RAWAS TAHUN 2005 – 2010<br />
Bab 25. Indikator Sosial, Budaya dan Keamanan kedepan<br />
Bab 26. Indikator Ekonomi dan Investasi yang diharapkan<br />
Bab 27. Wujud Pembangunan Fisik yang diharapkan<br />
BAGIAN VII<br />
PENUTUP<br />Bratvahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13117008171734434222noreply@blogger.com0